Biography of William Shakespeare and his works || Literary Foundation ||

William Shakespeare's Biography (1564-1616)

An English playwright, poet, actor, a renounced figure of the Elizabethan age, and one of the greatest dramatists of English drama Shakespeare was born on 23 April 1564 in Stratford, England. He was baptized on 26th April 1564 at Stratford-on-Avon's church. His father was John Shakespeare, the son of a farmer who came from the nearby village of Snitterfield to Stratford in about 1551. He was prosperous as a trader in corn, meat, leather, and other agricultural products. His mother's name was Mary Arden, the daughter of a wealthy farmer. She descended from an old Warwickshire family of mixed Anglo-Saxon blood. His parents got married in 1559. Shakespeare's parents were illiterate but evidence shows that his father can write.

In 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a peasant family of Shottery, who was eight years older than her boy husband.

Education of Shakespeare:-

He never attended any renowned educational institutions. However, his early education was started at the Endowed Grammar School at Stratford. Were, he learns little about "Latin" and "Greek". Later, he left school to support his family.

The real instructor of Shakespeare:-

His real teacher was the surroundings where he was born i.e. Stratford, and where he worked i.e. London. 

Stratford (his village)  is a charming village in beautiful Warwickshire, apart from this, the forest of Arden, the old castle of Warwick and Kenilworth, the old Roman canons, and the military ignite the powerful lively imagination mightiness in Shakespeare. 

He reflected the natural scenery of his village in his poetry which shows his genius as a keen sympathetic observer who observes significant details. The other centre is London- a city of world political activity, where he learns about the artificial man in an unnatural environment.

Besides,  two theories regarding his geniuses are as follows-

•  The Romantic school of writers has always held that "all came from within", and his genius was his sufficient guide.
• The unimaginative and practical man emphasizes studying his surrounding environment rather than his genius. He lived in the playing age, studied the crowd, and gave them what they wanted. His plays simply reflect their own thoughts and feelings.

Lastly, the education of Shakespeare was at the hand of nature which keeps his eyes wide open to the beauty of the world.

Dispute regarding his work:-

When he turned fourteen, left his school to support his father who lost his business and fell into debt. However, what kind of job he did is unknown but there is an assumption that to support his father in business Shakespeare did menial jobs. However, if we take a close study of his works as confirmation, especially Love's Labour's Lost, then he must be a botanist because of his knowledge of wildflowers; a sailor, because he knows the ropes; a courtier, because of his courtly language; a clown, because none other is dull and foolish; a king, because Richard and Hemery are true to life; a woman, because he has a sounded the depths of women's feelings; and surely a Roman, because in Coriolanus and Julius Caesar. He has shown us the Roman spirit better than Roman writers.

In 1584, he left his native town and went to London and joined Burbage's company of players.

In 1595, his name appeared on the payroll of Lord Chamberlain's company of actors, who performed at the court. Shakespeare left London in 1610 for Stratford where he stayed at New Place. He died on 23  April 1616.

Works of William Shakespeare:-

As far as Shakespeare's work is concerned he did not write any original plays rather he took stories from old plays and made them what the audience wanted.  All his works were published after his death in 1623.

His first folio was printed in 1623 by two actors Heming and Condell.  The folio contains 36 to 37 plays.

Period of his Plays:-

A careful reading suggests that Shakespeare has four periods for the development of his plays-

(1) a period of early experimentation, characterized by youthfulness and exuberance of imagination including works like 'Venus and Adonis', "Love's Labour's Lost", "Two Gentlemen of Verona", and "Richard 3rd". This period ranges from his arrival in London to 1595.

(2) a period of rapid growth and development, exhibits careful artistic works and better plots, including- "The Merchant of Venice", "Midsummer Night's Dream", "As You Like It", and " Henery 4th". This period ranges from 1595 to 1600.

(3) a period of gloom and depression that ranges from 1600 to 1607 includes- "Macbeth", "Othello", and " Julius Caesar".

(4) a period of restored serenity. The works of this period are- "The Winter's Tale", and "The Tempest".

Classification of his works on the basis of source:-

His works are borrowed from History or Historical Plays, Legendary Plays, and Stories or Fiction.

Historical plays are- "Richard 3rd", and "Henery". 

Legendary plays are- "Macbeth", King Lear", and " Julius Caesar".

Fictional plays are- "Romeo and Juliet", and "The Merchant of Venice".

For his legendary and Historical sources, he depends on- "Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland and on North's translation of Plutarch's famous lives".

His Poems:-

He wrote two long narrative poems- "Venus and Adonis"(1593), and "The Rape of Lucrece"(1594) in rhyme royal stanzas. 

In 1609, a collection of Shakespeare's sonnets is printed by Thomas Thrope. It has 154 poems.

His Plays:-

As a great playwright of the age. He produced several plays that are still unmatched by anyone's works. His plays are usually divided into three groups- (a) Tragedies, (b) comedies, and (c) Historical plays.

(a) Tragedies- A tragedy is a drama in which the hero or chief characters are involved in desperate circumstances or led by overwhelming passion.

(b) Comedies- A comedy is a drama in which the characters are placed in less or more humorous situations and the play ends with happiness.

(c) Historical plays- The Historical drama tends to present some historical age or characters and may be either a comedy or a tragedy.

Dates of Shakespeare's Plays:-

Date	Works
1591-1592	1. Henry VI, 2. Henry VI, 3. Henry VI
1593	Richard III, The Comedy of Errors
1594	Titus Andronicus, The Taming of the Shrew, Love's Labour's  Lost, Romeo and Juliet.
1595	A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Two Gentlement of Verona, King John
1596	Richard II, The Merchant of Venice
1597	1. Henry IV
1598	2. Henry IV, Much Ado Nothing
1599	Henry V, Julius Caesar
1600	The Merry Wives of Windsor,  As  You like it
1601	Hamlet, Twelfth Night
1602	Troilus and Cressida,  All's well that Ends Well
1603	Theatres Closed
1604	Measure of Measure, Othello
1605	Macbeth, King Lear
1606	Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus
1607	Timon of Athens (unfinished)
1608	Pericles (in part)
1609	Cymbeline
1610	The Winter's Tale
1611	The Tempest
1613	Henry VIII (in part

       

Source- 

• History of English Literature by-

     Edward Albert & W.J. Long.

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Biography of Annie Ernaux || Literary Foundation ||

 Annie Ernaux 

Annie Ernaux (Annie Thérèse Blanche Ernaux) is a French writer and professor of literature and Nobel Laureate who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2022. she was born on 1st September 1940 in Lillebonne, France. Her parents ran a cafe and a grocery in a working-class part of Lillebonne town in Normandy where she was born and grew up. She was educated at the University of Rouen and then Bordeaux where she qualified as a school teacher and gained a higher degree in modern literature. She married  Philippe Ernaux and has two sons. But the couple divorced in the early 1980s.

Her Literary Career:-

Her literary career began in 1974 with "Les Armoires vides"  (Cleaned Out), an autobiographical novel. In 1984, she won the Renaudot Prize for "La Place" (A Man's Place)it is also an autobiographical work focusing on her relationship with her father and her experiences growing up in a small town in France. 

In her early stage, she focused on fictional works but later she turned to autobiographical novels. In her works, we find historical and individual experiences. As far as her individual experiences are concerned she portrays her parents' social advancement, her marriage, her passionate affair with a European man, her abortion, disease, death of her mother, and breast cancer. 

Her literary works are mostly autobiographical and maintain close links with sociology.

Her works include- A Man's Place (1983), Simple Passion (1991), Pura Pasion (1993), A frozen women (1994), Exteriors (1996), La Honte (1997), I Remain in Darkness (1998), La place (1983), Shame (1998),  Happening (2001), The possession (2008), Things seen (2010), A GIrl's story (2016), Getting Lost (2022). Her first three novels, Cleaned Out (1990), Do What They Say or Else (1977) and A Frozen Woman (1994), form a trilogy of autobiographical novels. These works broadly detail the socialization of a working-class girl who has a middle-class education and then marriage.

The central themes of her novels are body and sexuality, intimate relationships, and social inequality. Her books also explored how shame is built in the female consciousness and how women censor and judge themselves even in personal spaces such as a diary.

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Touchstone Method by Arnold || Literary Foundation ||

The term Touchstone was first coined by Matthew Arnold in his work The Study of Poetry. Touchstone means a piece of fine-grained dark jasper formula used for testing alloys of gold by observing the colour of the mark they made on it. But in literature, it is used to is used to judge the quality of poetry.

A Victorian poet and critic, Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) was considered the first modern critic and could be called a critic's critic.  He was a champion in both poetry and literary criticism. As per Arnold the purpose of literary criticism was to know the best that is known and thought in the world. With the desire to know the best, he created a current of true and fresh ideas that influenced the whole school of literary criticism including new critics such as T.S Eliot, F.R. Leavis, and Allen Tate.  He founded the sociological school of criticism and through his touchstone method introduced scientific objectivity to critical evaluation by providing comparison and analysis as the two primary tools of criticism. One of his prose includes- "Essays in Criticism"(1865 and 1889).

His touchstone method is used to judge the piece of poetry and find out real estimates to feel and enjoy the best work of real classics. For him, "poetry is a criticism of life, governed by the law of poetic truth and beauty". He says that in the criticism of life or the mirror of life, the spirit of our race will find its stay and consolation. He tried to avoid the false evolution of historical and personal estimates and attend to the real estimate to feel and enjoy the best work of real classics. In his view, the historical estimate is fallacious because we regard ancient poets with unrestrained homage, and in Personal estimates we are biased toward the contemporary poet. To overcome the shortcomings of these two methods and to get a real estimate of any piece of poetry, Arnold has suggested the touchstone method as a comparative method of criticism to judge the quality of poetry. 

He has said that to judge any piece of a poet's work properly, a critic should compare that work with the passages passage of any classical poet or a great master of poetry and consider that passage as a touchstone. Even a single line and quotation of the classical author that has the qualities of high position, high seriousness, high truth, and character of high quality will serve as a touchstone. If the works of other authors move in the same way as the lines or passages of classical poets, then it is really a great work otherwise not. 

Arnold, by keeping these qualities in the centre, applies the touchstone method to Chaucer. According to him, 

"And yet Chaucer is not one of the great classics. His poetry transcends and effaces easily and without effort, all the romance- poetry of catholic Christendom; it transcends and effaces all the English poetry contemporary with it, and it transcends and effaces all the English poetry subsequent to it down to the age of Elizabeth".

 After Chaucer, he applied this method to the Elizabeth Age and according to Arnold Shakespeare from Elizabeth and Milton from Puritan Age are classic poets. They all have these qualities including high truth and high seriousness.

However, the touchstone method has its own limitations too. Lines or even the passages when taken out of context are openly misleading. Moreover, "the true work can be judged by the total impression and not by a single line or brief passage" Arnold himself stated the value of a total impression. But here, he contradicts his own earlier pronouncement. 

According to Professor Garrod- this method consists of "the studying of selling poetry by proud",  the conditions of the age in which writers write are different and so are their motivations. Hence, one work of art can't be judged based on the excellence of others. Therefore, it may not be treated as the best line by some other critics. Despite many limitations, Arnold's touchstone method has its own importance. He has given us an excellent example of using the comparative method. 

 Source:-

• Arnold's The Study of Poetry A Critique by Dr. Radhmohan Singh and Dr. Gunjan.
• Arnold Touchstone Method by Dr. Vibhas Ranjan.

Also Read:-

Poetry is criticism or a mirror of life - Arnold

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Biography of Samuel Johnson

• Samuel Johnson was born on 18th September 1709 in  Lichfield, England. 
• Michael Johnson was his father who was a bookseller. 
• He was a biographer, essayist, lexicographer, editor, and poet.
• He was educated at Grammer School in Lichfield in 1719 and entered Pembroke College Oxford in 1728. 
• When his father died in 1713, he was forced to leave the college. 
• However, poverty did not stop him from securing respect and probity, he was received in the best society of his native place.
•  He has strong and virtuous power of thinking. he was advancing slowly but surely into the higher society.
• Johnson never lost friends and respect and continues admired by each new friend.
• He married  Elizabeth Porter (a widow) in 1735, older than him. At the time of marriage, he was twenty-six years old and his wife was forty-six years.
• His first literary attempt was the translation of "Father Lobo's Voyage to Abyssinia".
• In 1737 Johnson come to London to try his fortune after an unsuccessful attempt of opening a school near Lichfield.
• When he was in London he write a historical tragedy named "Irene", an unsuccessful attempt.
• His expanded imitation of a juvenal satire "London" was his first work that bring public attention. It was published anonymously.
• "Vanity of Human Wishes" (1749 ) was an impressive poem, that has morality, the first work published with his name. It treats some melancholy subjects.
• In 1752 Johnson lost his wife.
• To pay his debt he published a work named "Rassela". It was written in solitude and sorrow which exhibits the author's temperament.
• His two political pamphlets are "The False Alarm" and "Falklands Islands".
• His most important work is "The Lives of the English Poets" in 1777.
• One of his pamphlets entitled "Taxation no Tyranny" is written in a strain of high Toryism.

Life of Abraham Cowley 

source:-

• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-Johnson
• https://biblioteca.org.ar/libros/167764.pdf

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Analysis of Life of Abraham Cowley by Johnson

Samuel Johnson, a renowned figure of the 18th century, was known for his many talents as a critic, essayist, moralist, editor, and biographer. His intellect was highly respected and he produced numerous notable works, including "The Lives of British Poet", originally titled "Biographical and Critical, to the Works of the English Poets" from 1771 to 1781. This work is considered one of his most acclaimed pieces and consists of biographical and critical evaluations of 52 poets from the 18th century. Johnson divides the work into three parts.

In the biography of Abraham Cowley, Johnson mentions his predecessor Dr. Sprat and criticizes his work for being more of a funeral oration than a biography. Abraham Cowley (1618-1667) was a posthumous child raised by his mother and proved to be a true genius of his time. In his diligent reading of "Fairy Queene", Cowley is described as possessing the particular mental capacity known as true genius. He began his writing career at a young age and his works include "The Tragical History of Pyramus and Thisbe", "Constantia and Philetus", "Love Riddle", "Davidas"(1936), "The Guardian", and a satire called "Puritan and Papist". In 1644, he left Oxford for Paris and served Lord Jeremy at the court of Henrietta Maria. In 1654, he returned to England and was briefly imprisoned in 1655. 

In 1657, he became Oxfordian and Johnson wrote, "At the same time, the two great poets Cowley and Milton, of this similar genius but opposite principles, were produced from the same University." Despite his contributions, Cowley was never properly recognized for his work and retired discontent in Surya. He passed away at the age of 49 in 1667 and was buried with great pomp near Chaucer and Spencer. Even King Charles acknowledged his greatness by saying, "That Mr. Cowley had not left behind him a better man in England," and this posthumous praise was given to him.


Johnson then discusses 17th-century metaphysical poetry and points out that while the poets of this era were highly educated, they failed to write poetry that could truly inspire and touch readers. Referring to Aristotle, Johnson states that metaphysical poets may lose their position as poets because they neither imitate nature nor life. Citing Pope's definition of wit as "that which was often thought but never so well expressed," Johnson claims that these poets did not pay attention to wit. They were unique in their thoughts and processes, and their language was casual. Johnson also argues that Pope's definition of wit is limited because when one reads the poetry of a metaphysical poet, one will find that it creates "Discordia Concors" - "a combination of dissimilar images or the discovery of hidden resemblances in seemingly unrelated things." According to Johnson, anything improper and vicious is produced in pursuit of something new and strange, and the writer fails to delight the reader but rather seeks admiration. 

However, despite these flaws, the efforts and hard work of metaphysical poets cannot be overlooked. After a general description of metaphysical poets, Johnson focuses on Cowley and regards him as the best among them. Cowley's "Miscellanies" contains various styles written by a mind that had plenty of leisure time. Johnson gives an example of Cowley's "Ode" and condemns it for being too witty, saying, "Yet 'tis not to adorn and glid each part, That shows more cost than art. Jewels at the nose and, but lips ill appear; Rather than all things wit, let none be there." According to Johnson, Cowley's verses to Lord Falkland, which are proud praises, are not well-crafted. However, his elegy on Sir Henry Wotton is vigorous and happy, although slightly weakened by the intrusion of Alexander. It is elegant and powerful. Johnson's highest praise goes to "Chronicles", an unrivalled and exceptional composition. After "Miscellanies", Cowley is known for a volume of translated poems called "Anacreon", which promotes the "carpe diem" principle (meaning to enjoy the present day). These poems are joyful and festive, unlike his other works. 

Cowley's next collection of poems, "Mistress", written with an abundance of wit and learning, uses exaggerated language to express love, which fails to create the beauty and appropriateness expected in poetry. Johnson admits that Cowley's "Pindarick" Odes are a better composition in comparison. In these Odes, Cowley successfully follows the style of ancient poets. An example given by Johnson is, "Begin the song Strike the living lyre! Lo! How the year to come, a numerous and well...

source:-
https://biblioteca.org.ar/libros/167764.pdf
IGNOU UNIT 6: SAMUEL JOHNSON: “LIFE OF COWLEY”

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Poem- An Introduction by Kamala Das

TEXT OF POEMS

I don't know politics but I know the names

Of those in power, and can repeat them like
Days of weeks or names of months, beginning with Nehru.
I am Indian, very brown, born in Malabar,
I speak three languages, write in
Two, dreams in one.
Do not write in English, they said, English is
Not your mother tongue.
Why not leave me alone critics, friends, visiting cousins,
every one of you?
Why not let me speak in any language I like?
The language I speak becomes mine its distortions its queerness
All mine, mine alone.
It is half English, half Indian, funny perhaps, but it is honest
It is as human as I am human, do not you see
it voices my joys, my longings, my hopes and it
Is useful to be as cawing as to crow or roaring to the lions.
It is human a speech, the speech of mind that is here and not there,
A mind that sees and hears and is aware
not the deaf-blind speech
Of trees in storm or of monsoon clouds or of rain or the
Incoherent mutterings of blessing funeral pyre.
I was a child, and later
They told me I grew, for I become tall, my limbs
Swelled and one or two sprouted hair.
When I ask for love, not knowing what else to ask for
He drew or youth of sixteen into the
Bedroom and closed the door, He did not beat me
But my sad woman-body felt so beaten.
The weight of my breasts and womb crushed me.
I shrank pitifully.
Then... I wore a shirt and my
Brother's trousers cut my hair shorts and
Ignored my womanliness.
Dress in sarees, be girl, be wife they said.
Be embroiderer, be cook,
Be a quarreller with servants.
Fit in, Oh, Belong, cried the categorizers.
Don't sit on walls or peep in through our laced-draped windows.
Be Amy, or be Kamla. Or, better still
be Madhavikutty.
It is time to choose a name, a role.
Don't play pretending games. Don't play at schizophrenia
Or be a nympho.
Do not cry embarrassingly loud when jilted in love...
I meet a man, loved him, call him not by any name
He is every man who wants a woman, just as
I am every woman who seeks love.
In him.. the hungry haste of rivers,
In me the ocean's tireless
Waiting, Who are you, I ask each and every one
The answer is, it is I.
Anywhere and everywhere, I see the one who calls,
Himself I in this world, he is tightly packed like
The sword in its sheath. It is I who drink lonely,
Drinks at twelve midnight, it is I who make love
And then, feel shame, it is I who lie dying
With a rattle in my throat. I am sinner,
I am saint. I am beloved and I the betrayed.
I have no joys that are not yours, no
Aches which are not yours. I too call myself I.

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Analysis of poem An Introduction || Literary Foundation ||

The poem An Introduction (1965) is an autobiographical poem by Kamala Das (1934-2009). She was an iconoclast and one who introduced confessional elements in Indian English poetry. This poem was published in her first volume of poetry Summer in Culcatta in 1965. Her other works are- The Descendent (1967), The Old Play House, and Another Poems (1984). She is essentially known for her bold and frank expression. An acute obsession with love and confessional modes are important features of her poetry. 

As per M.H Abrams-

                "confessional poetry designates a type of narrative 

                  and lyric verse, which deals with the facts and 

                  intimates the mental and physical experiences of the poet's 

                  own life".

Because of her confessional modes, she is classified with the other confessional writers of America such as Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Saxton.

The poem An Introduction reveals the poet's life, her linguistics acquirement, her physical growth, her sad experience of married life, her belonging, her love for another man, and her eventual frustration. It triggers the process of introspection and self-discovery in the minds of writers. It also expresses the poet's craving for love and sense of frustration and deprivation. The poem is a brilliant example of the poet's confessionalism where she unfolds her entire self with frankness.

The poem An Introduction is written in free verse in a single stanza. The lines have no uniform length and range from three to eleven. It has no matrical pattern or rhyme scheme. However, the style allows the use of sporadic use of rhyme schemes. Literary devices such as enjambment, alliteration, anaphora, and allusion are used. Alliterations are at the beginning of the poem for instance- in lines one, four, five, fourteen, fifteen, eighteen, thirty-six, etc. Anaphora is expressed through the repetition of the pronouns 'I' for her identity and 'It' for her language. There are several examples of allusion: she refers to some specific places and names of politicians that need to be researched. She also uses ellipsis- " Then... I wore a shirt."

At the very outset of the poem, the poet (Kamala Das)  reveals her knowledge- 

                   "I don't know politics but I know

                     the names Of those in power, and

                     can repeat them like Days of weeks

                    or names of months, beginning with Nehru."

as this poem was written after India's independence, the poet tries to show the reality of the political arena. Here, she shows that the political area was crowded with men and there was no place for women. The only work that Women can do is to remember the names of politicians like days and months.

She proudly announces her identity as she was born in Malabar, Kerala. She is an Indian and has a brown complexion. In comparison with men she tries to be boastful and said she can speak three languages. However, she was fond of English and writes in it. Her choice of writing has caught the attention of her critics, friends, and cousins who advised her not to write in English. The poet wants them to stay away and let her write in the language she likes.

She said that language is a common property and the language she speaks becomes hers. She takes complete possession of the language in which she writes. The poet accepts all its distortions and queerness as her only.-

                    "The language I speak becomes 

                      mine its distortions its queerness,

                     All mine, mine alone".

Kamala Das compares her language to human beings-

                    "It is as human as I am human"
and emphatically asks questions to her critics and friends-
                     "Do not you see"

She said that it voices my joys, my longings, and my hopes. It is natural just like cawing to a crow and roaring to a lion. It is a language of an aware mind.

Kamala Das shifts the focus of the reader from her language acquaintances to her personal life. When she craves for love, in her adolescence, and does not know what else to ask. Her parents, without knowing her sentiment, tie her in a nuptial knot. Her desire for love was crushed in marital rape. Her husband sees her as an object and fulfils her sexual desire. This experience traumatised and devastated her badly. She gets frightened because of such a kind of treatment in a patriarchal society where a woman has to work as per per-established norms.

Because of her wretched experience of marriage, she hates her womanliness. She tries to overcome this pitiable condition. She adores her brother's trousers and gets her hair cut. After seeing such bold steps by the poet, her critic, friends, and cousin advised her-
                   "Dress in sarees, be girl, be wife,

                     they said. Be embroiderer, be cook".

But do not live your life as per your wish. 

She was asked to choose a name-

                    "Be Amy, or be Kamla. Or, 

                     better still be Madhavikutty".

choose a role but neither play a pretending game nor sit on the wall and peep through the lace window. By acting as a male she seems to them someone who lost his or her connection form reality. She was also asked not to cry when jilted in love.

However, in her desire for love, she meets a man and loves him, but does not call him by any name instead calls him as- 

                       "He is every man who wants 

                        a woman, just as I am as every

                        woman seeks love". 

Here, she represents all women through herself.

When she asks everyone about their identity. The only answer she got was "I". The "I" is the male ego that sticks to the male personality like- a "Sword in its sheath". Further, she said that it is "I" who drinks lonely, drinks at twelve nights, in hotels of a strange town, makes love, and feels ashamed.

She, in the end, reveals her role and declares-

                   " I am sinner, I am saint.

                      I am the beloved, and the betrayed, 

                      I have no joys that are not yours, no   

                      Aches which are not yours. I too 

                     call myself I." 

The poet identifies herself as "I".  She feels sinner because she has a lot of relationships, and sometimes feels pious because she is in search of true love. In the course of finding true love, she has both joyful and painful experiences that make her feel as  "beloved, and betrayed". Since there were no differences regarding pleasure and pain between her and men. So, in that way, she also declares herself as "I". This is how at the end of the poem she asserts her identity.

        

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