Gora by Rabindranath Tagore

 Gora and Important Quotes:-

The novel, Gora was written by Rabindranath Tagore, an eminent Indian author and the first Asian Nobel Prize winner. Through the journey of Gora; from being a dogmatist to being liberal, and other characters, Tagore presented a complex and entangled story of two religious sects i.e. Hindu religion and Brahmo Samaj. He tried to showcase how in both religions several people blindly follow their faith, criticize, spread hate, condemn, and abuse each other but do not use their conscience and intellect for the reason of their faiths. However, characters like Anandmoyi and Paresh Babu are presented as an emblems of love and intellect despite their different faiths.

Besides these, Tagore also tried to present the idea of a nation through the character of Anandamoyi. She has rejected all kinds of prejudiced notions of religion and truly follows his heart and intellect. She hates no one and is very sympathetic toward the downtrodden.

Characters:-

Anandamoyi; a Brahmin and mother of Gora.

Krishnadayal Babu; husband of Anandamoyi

Gourmohan; or Gora

Binoy Bhusan Chatterji; or Binoy and childhood friend of Gora.

Mohim; stepson of Anandamoyi, elder to Gora.

Paresh-Chandra Bhattacharya; or Paresh Babu, Brahmo Samaj follower- liberal, kind-hearted, and intellectual.

Baroda; wife of Paresh Babu and bigot to her faith.

Labonya; elder daughter of Presh Babu.

Lolita; middle daughter of Paresh Babu.

Lila; youngest daughter of Paresh Babu.

Haran-Chandra Nag; or Panu Babu and bigot Brahmo follower.

Suchatita; daughter (adopted) of Paresh Babu.

Satish-Chandra Mukherji; brother of Sucharita.

The novel also has other minor characters.

Note- Gora was not a son of Anandamoyi and Krishnadayal but only she raised him, and it was revealed to him at the end of this novel.

Quotes:-

• "Gora, do you think that every debt can be paid off  with money."

        (Anandamoyi, ch- 03)

• "I used to worship the emblem of Shiva, made by my own hand, and your father used to come and throw it in fury."

        (Anandamoyi, ch-03, shows the hypocrisy of the upper cast)

• "When you hold a little child to your breast then you feel certain that no one is born into this world with cast. From that very day understanding came to me that if I looked down upon anyone for being of low cast, or a Christian, then God would snatch you away from me."

        (Anandamoyi, ch-03, idea of inclusivity)

• "I have long ceased to take pride in caste."

        (Anandamoyi, ch-06)

• "She knew that all the family unpleasantness was bound to be put down to the stepmother in Sociaey's code of justice, but she never in the habit of regulating her conduct by what people might think of her."

        (Tagore to Anandamoyi, ch- 36, unrevealed the truth of social justice, shows the position of  a stepmother in society/ temperament of society toward stepmother, and her courageous spirit)

• "Marriage, is a matter of heart coming together- if that happens, what matters it what mantras are recited?"

        (Anandamoyi, ch- 37, notion of love)

• "How true man is himself, and how false the things about which his quarrels divide men from men... There is no caste in men's heart-there God brings men together and there he himself comes to them."

        (Anandamoyi, ch-37)

• "Scriptural rules must be accepted as final."

        (Gora, ch- 03, orthodoxical view)

• "It is impossible to take food in your room so long as you keep on that Christian maidservant Lachmi."

        (Gora, ch- 03)

• "The altar at which women may be truly worshipped is her place as mother, the seat of pure, right-minded lady." 

        (Gora, ch- 02, orthodoxical view for women)

• "This was the first time Gora had seen what the condition of his country was like, outside the well-to-do and cultured society."

        (Tagore, ch-26, here Gora witnesses the distinction between human beings and the real picture of his Inadia.)

• "What terrible wrong  have we been doing", he said himself, " by making purity of external thing."

        (Gora, ch- 26)

• "Those who are in prison are bearing the punishment for the sins of those who judge others, but not themselves."

        (Gora, ch- 32)

• "I can't respect a religion", expostulated Gora, "which denies the rights of the individual and of society and claims everything for itself."

        (Gora, ch- 56, transformation in Gora because of the journey he takes)

• "Gora regards Sucharita as an Idea. The Womanhood of India was revealed to him in the figure of Sucharita, and he regarded her as the manifestation of all that was sweet, pure loving and virtuous in the home of his motherland."

        (Gora, ch- 57)

• "Ever since I first met you a new thought has been surging through my mind...I keep thinking that India can never be fully revealed only by looking at her men. Her manifestation will only be complete when she has revealed to our women."

        (Gora, ch- 63)

• "Now in the time of trial, he should once again place the truth above all social and prudential consideration."

        (Paresh Babu, ch- 47)

• "Sectarianism is a thing which makes people entirely forget the simple and obvious truth that man is man- it creates a kind of whirlpool in which the society- made distinction between Hindu and Brahmo assume greater importance than universal truth."

        (Presh Babu, ch-49)

• "The social system of our country is intimately bound up with religious opinion - therefore with all our social observances religious practices have some connection."

        (Paresh Babu, ch- 62)

• "Haran could  forgive almost anything except the following of an independent  path, by those whom he had tried to guide aright."

        (Haran-Chandra Nag, ch- 40)

• "The more he felt that he was gradually losing respect of everyone in this house, the more desperately he struggled to maintain his position in it."

        (Haran-Chandra Nag, ch- 34)

• "If Brahmo Samaj has appointed you its judge, it is better for us to be out of it altogether."

        (Lolita, ch-46)

• "The proper remedy for evil is to fight against it."

        (Lolita, ch-47)

• "Liberty for me means freedom from the slavery of falsehood, and from the attacks of meanness."

        (Lolita, ch-50)

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Man and Superman - Quotes and characters

 Man and Superman

The play Man and Superman was written by a British writer named George Bernard Shaw. It was written in 1903 and published in 1905.

The play deals with the ideas of Shaw. The Life Force is one ft the significant ideas in the play that deals with how humans can evolve themselves to superhuman. Furthermore, he also gives scathing remarks on religion, politics and marriage.

It has four acts.

Characters of the play:-

Roebuck Ramsden

Mr Octavious Robinson

Violet; sister of Mr Octavious Robinson

Jack/John Tanner

Hector 

Mr Malone; an American, and Hector's father

Ann Whitefield

Miss Rhoda; sister to Ann

Mendoza; a brigand

Mr Enry Starker; chauffer to Tanner's car

Important Quotes:-

"You know that I am not a prejudiced and bigoted man... I have always stood for equality and free conscience while they were truckling to the churches and to the aristocracy."

    (act- 01, by Roubuck Ramsden)

"She'll commit every crime a respectable woman can; she'll justify every one of them by saying they it was the wish of her guardians,. She'll put everything on us; and we shall have no control over her than a couple of mice over a cat."

    (act-01, by Tanner, reveals Ann's character.)

"Ann will do just exactly what she likes. And what is more, she will force us to advise her to do it, and she will put the blame on us if ti turns out badly."

    (act-01, by Tanner, about Ann's character)

"We live in an atmosphere of shame. We are ashamed of everything  that is real about us; ashamed of ourselves, of our relatives, of our income, of our accents, of our opinion, of our experience, just we are as ashamed of our naked skins."

    (act-01, by Tanner, sarcastic comment on English society)

"You are ashamed to buy my book, ashamed to read it: the only thing you are not ashamed of is to judge me for it without having read it."

    act-01, by Tanner, about Ramsden's character)

"It was the creative instinct that led you to attach me to you by bonds that have left their mark on me to this day. Yes, Ann: the old childish compact between us was an unconscious love compact."

    (act-01, by Tanner, the idea of Life Force)

"It is a woman's business to get married as soon as possible, and a man's to keep unmarried as long as he can."

    (act-02, by Tanner)

"The first duty of manhood and womanhood is a declaration of independence."

    (act-02, by Tanner)

"You can be as romantic as you please about love, Hector; but you mustn't be romantic about money."

    (act-02, by Violet)

"I am a gentleman: I live by robbing the poor."

    (act-02, Mendoza)

"I am a gentleman. I live by robbing the poor."

    (act-03, by Tanner)

" Her intellect reached forward into the twentieth century: her social prejudices and family affections reached back into the dark ages."

    (act-03, by Mendoza, about his beloved Louisa Starker)

"Hell is the home of honour, duty, justice, and the rest of the seven deadly virtues."

    (act-03, by Don Juan)

"I am so much more admired in marble than I was..."

    (act-03, by The Statue)

"It is true that the world cannot get on without me; but it never gives me credit for that: in its heart it mistrusts and hates me."

    (act-03, by The Devil)

"At every one of those concerts in England you will find rows of weary people who are there, not because they really like classical music, but because they think they ought to like it. There is the same thing in heaven. A number of people sit there in glory, not because they are happy, but because they think they owe it to their position to be in heaven."

    (act-03, by The Statue)

"Men thrive better on disappointments in love than on disappointments in money."

    (act-04, by Malone)

"I want no middle-class properties and no middle-class women for Hector."

    (act-04, by Malone)

"Domestic pressure may be slow; but it's sure."

    (act-04, by Malone)

"Sir: there are two tragedies in life. One is not to get your heart's desire. The other is to get it."

    (act-04, by Mendoza)

In the third act of the play when the hell scene is presented, the name of the following changes-

Jack Tanner - Don Juan.

Mendoza - The Devil.

The Statue - Ann's Father (Mr. Whitefield) who has died.

Ana - Ann Whitefield.

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Look Back in Anger and Important Quotes

The play "Look Back in Anger" was written by British writer John Osborne and first performed at the Royal Court Theatre, London, on 8th May 1956. It is centred on Jimmy Porter, who belongs to the lower middle class and continuously rants about suffering and frustration. He has a wife, Alison. Jimmy is an educated person, but because of the hierarchical structure of class in society, he does not get his desired job and life. Consequently, he feels frustrated.

The play is divided into three acts.

Act 1 has no scene.

Act 2 has two scenes.

Act 3 has two scenes.

Characters-

Jimmy Porter; is a young man of 25 years and the protagonist, belongs to the lower middle class..

Alison Porter; is the wife of Jimmy. She belongs to the upper class.

Clif Lewis; is a friend of Jimmy Porter.

Helena Charles; is a Friend of Alison Porter.

Colonel Redfren; father of Alison.

The play has also minor characters like-

Madeline; mistress of Jimmy.

Miss Drury; owner of the rented room.

Hugh Tanner; used to be a friend of Jimmy.

Mrs. Tanner; Hugh Tsnner's mother.

Nigel; Alison's brother.

Important Quotes:-

"She hasn't had a thought for years! Have you?"

    (act 1, Jimmy comments on Alison. Since Alison belongs to the upper class and comments on her show that he comments on the upper-class mentality because of the indifference toward the middle class.)

"I am the only person who knows how to treat a paper or anything else in the house."

        (act 1, said by Jimmy. shows his sense of superiority.)

" He (Bishop of Bromely) makes a very moving appeal to all Christians to do all they can to assist in the manufacture of H-bomb."

    (Cliff reads it in the paper. It reveals that in Osborne's time, even the church appealed to help in manufacturing bombs.)

"He is being offensive. And it's easy for him."

    (In act 1, Cliff says about Jimmy's nature.)

"How I hate Sunday! It's always so depressing, always the same...the same ritual of reading the paper, drinking tea, ironing and another week gone. Our youth is slipping away."

     (act 1, said by Jimmy. It shows that there is nothing new in his life or in the life of the lower middle-class families. He has a mechanical life.)

"Nobody can be bothered. No one can raise themselves out of their delicious sloth."

    (act 1, by Jimmy.)

"Nobody thinks, nobody cares no beliefs, no conviction, no enthusiasm, Just another Sunday evening."

     (act 1, Jimmy's notion of detachment and apathy.)

"...the back of the mind is the vague knowledge that he and his pals have been plundering and fooling everybody for generations."

    (act 1 by Jimmy. He comments on the upper-class mentality for their so-called knowledge.)

"For the first time in my life, I was cut off from my kind of people, I'd always know, my family my friends and everybody."

    (act 2, by Alison. it shows her loneliness.)

"For twelve months I watched my father dying- when I was ten years old."

    (act 2 scene 1, by Jimmy.)

"Where I come from, we are used to brawling and excitement."

    (act 2, scene 1, by Cliff. it reveals the nature of the lower middle-class people.)

"All I know is that none of you know how to behave in a decent civilised way."

    (act 3, scene 2, by  Helena.)

"I have discovered what is wrong with Jimmy? He was born out of his time... He doesn't know where he is or where he is going."

    (act 3, scene 2, by Helena.)

"Everything about him seemed to burn, his face, the edges of his hair glistened and seemed to spring off his head, and his eyes were so blue and full of sun."

    (act 2, scene 1, by Alison. She describes Jimmy's physical beauty. And probably this was the reason she fell in love with him. She also describes him as a "Knight in shining armour", same act & scene)

"She gets letter. Letter from her mother, letters in which I am not mentioned at all because of my name is a dirty word." 

    (act 1, by Jimmy.)

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The Age of Elizabethan and authors

 The Age of Elizabethan (1558-1603) 

History of the Period:-

It is the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). Her reign is one of the most important periods which have a great impact on the Renaissance. However, when she was crowned as queen the whole country was divided into two groups i.e. catholic(northern side) and protestant(southern counties). They always fought for their religious cause and religious persecution. They even tortured each other in court to gain royal favour. But the queen treats them equally and they become united under one umbrella. For the first time, their mind turns toward literature and other activity. Her reign was just like a dawn for England. and Her love for England awakened tremendous patriotism among the English people. English national life progressed by huge leaps, and literature reached the very highest point of its development. Here, Milton says- "a noble and puissant nation, rousing herself, like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks". 

Characteristics of  The Elizabethan Age:-

(1) It was the reign of religious tolerance.

(2) It was an age of social satisfaction. 

(3) This age is known as an age of dreams, adventure, limitless enthusiasm, and expansion of mental and geographical horizontal. 

The great voyagers brought knowledge from the East and their exploits were recorded in "Hakluyt".

Literary Feature of the Age:-

(1) The New Romanticism- It is the first romantic era. The romantic quest is for the remote, the wonderful, and the beautiful.

(2) Drama - This is the greatest period of drama because the bold and critical attitude of drama appeared and it made a swift and wonderful leap into maturity. William Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist.

(3) Poetry- Poetry production is not equal to drama.

(4) Prose- First time, prose raised to a position of first-rate importance. The dead weight of Latin was getting away and English prose was acquiring its position. 

Poets of  the Age:-

(1) Edmund Spencer (1552-99)

(2) John Donne(1573-1631)

(3) Sir Thomas Wyatt (1530(?)-1542) 

(4) Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516(?)-1547)

(5) Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586)

(6) Michal Drayton (1563-1631)

(8) Samuel Daniel (1562-1619)

(9) Thomas Campion (1567-1620)

Playwrights of the Age:-

(1) George Peele (1558-98)

(2) Robert Greene (1558-92)

(3) Thomas Nash (1567-1601)

(4) Thomas Lodge(1558-1625)

(5) Thomas Kyd(1558-1594)

(6) Christopher Marlowe(1564-1593)

    (The above playwrights are University Wits.)

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE 

Post- Shakespearian Dramatist:-

(1) Ben Jonson(1573(?)- 1637)

(2) Francis Beaumont (c. 1584-1616) and John Fletcher            (1579-1625)

(3) John Marston (1575-1634)

(4) Thomas Dekker (1572-1632)

(5) Thomas Middelton (1570-1627)

(6) Thomas Heywood (1575-1650)

(7) George Chapman (c. 1559-1634)

Source-

History of English Literature

Edward Albert.

William J Long.

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The Old Man and the Sea || important quotes||

 Major Quotes and characters in "The Old Man and the Sea"

The Old Man and the Sea is a novella by American writer Ernest Hemingway. It is centred on an old man named Santiago, who fails continuously for eighty-four days to catch a fish. Ultimately he succeeds in catching an eighteen-fit long fish, a Marlin. However, in the battle with a hunting shark, he loses the flesh of the fish and what remains is the skeleton.

 The story also focuses on the friendship of Santiago and Manolin. Manolin is a boy who used to fish with the old man's boat but because of his failure, his parents asked him to move to another boat. Though Monolin goes to another boat, his friendship with the old man is still the old one. It is Manoline who believes in him despite his continuous failure.

Characters-

It has eight characters.

Santiago; an old man.

Marlin; is the biggest fish.

Manolin; a lad and Santiago's close friend.

Martin; the owner of the Terrace gives food to Santiago.

Pedrico; one who receives the head of Marlin.

Rogelio; is a boy who helps Santiago with his fish net.

Los Galanos; are hunting sharks.

The Mako Shark; is known for its eight rows of teeth.

Important Quotes-

• "Man is not made for death. A man can be destroyed but not defeated."

• "Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same colour as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated."  (this quote shows the spirit and strength of the old man. Though he is old and his body has lost its strength and charm of young age, he has not lost his inner youthfulness. And it is being reflected through his eyes.)

• "...Many fishermen made fun of the old man and he was not angry."

        The old man has control over his emotions.

• "You will not fish without eating while I am alive."

        Manolin said to the old man. It shows the love of the boy for his old friend.

• "I may not be as strong as I think but I know many tricks and I have a resolution."

        The old man says to himself. It shows his resilience against the situation which he is facing. It also depicts the mind is more powerful than physical strength.

• "Now is no time to think of what you do not have. Think of what you can do with what there is."

        (when Santiago struggles to catch fish in mid-ocean. His mind gets distracted and numerous thoughts of different kinds start coming into his mind. In that situation, he motivates himself and tries to concentrate on what he is doing. It reveals the perspective of the old man.)

• "Fish, "he said softly, aloud "I will stay with you until I am dead."

• "Most people are heartless about turtles because a turtle's heart will beat for hours after he has been cut up and butchered... I have such a heart too and my feet and hands are like theirs."

• "No one should be alone in their old age."

            (loneliness)

• "I wish I had the e boy."

            (loneliness)

• "Perhaps I should not have been a fisherman, he thought. But that was a thing the I was born for." (human limitation)

• "Be calm and strong old man; he said."
• "And pain does not matter to a man."

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Longinus-On the Sublime | Classical Criticism |

"On the Sublime" is a precious legacy of the Greco-Roman period. It is a critical document of great worth and significance. This work belongs to Longinus. However, the authenticity of the date and author is a matter of debate.

        It has a well-marked structure. Longinus has addressed this document to a friend and a pupil- Terentianus. Its central discussion is those vices of style included in the contemporary oratory i.e. "a false Sublime". While addressing his friend Terentian, Longinuis has said that this essay aims to correct the faults of Caecilius's essay "Essay on Sublime" and make some preliminary observations.

        Longinus has propounded that "Sublimity is a certain loftiness and excellence in language". It is the sublimity that the greatest poets and prose writers of any age have gained reverence and immmortility in the realm of criticism. Sublimity not only persuades us but also carries us irresistibly. According to Longinus, Sublimity can be expressed even in a single line, like a flash of lightning. 

        Further, He has divided Sublimity into two categories. They are- true sublimity and false sublimity. True sublimity, as Longinus has defined it, uplifts our soul. "It arises from lofty ideas, clothed in loft language". In other words true sublime "Pleases all and pleases always". On the contrary, the false sublime consists merely of appealing surfaces that conceal nothing only emptiness. There is a bombast of language and a cheap display of passion.

        According to Longinus, Sublimility can be achieved in five ways. Those five ways are the following- "Grandeur of Thought", "Intensity of Emotion", "The Appropriate Use of Figure of Speech", "Nobility of Dicton", and "Dignified  Composition".

The first two qualities, "Grandeur of Thought" and "Intensity of Emotion" are the gifts of nature. It is a human's intrinsic quality. And the others are acquired by art. 

Sources of Sublimity-:

Grandeur of thought - It is the first requirement of sublimity. It means greatness and nobility of thought that will surely find its natural expression in lofty language. Such thoughts are the "echo of greatness" As per Longinus such thoughts can be cultivated by nourishing the mind on the thought that is elevating. Therefore he who wants to attain such distinctiveness in their style and writing must feed his soul on the work of the great master like Homar. However, Longinus warns that learning does not mean imitation but "a man catches fire in from the spirit of other".  Further, he says that the grandeur of conception is to be emphasised and made effective by suitable material treatment.

Intensity of emotion / Passion - This is the second source of the sublime. In Longinus's view, nothing can contribute to grandeur conception other than vehement emotion.

The use of figures - It is the third source of sublimity. It can be achieved through learning. Longinus has devoted one-third of his work to it and says that figures should not be used mechanically, instead they must come from true or genuine emotions. In other words,  

"A figure is most effective when the fact that it is a figure is happily concealed, and it is concealed by splendour of style"

However, Longinus does not deal with all the figures of speech. He only deals with rhetorical questions, Asyndenton, Hyperbaton, and Periphrasis.

Diction - The fourth source of 'sublime' is diction. It includes choice and arrangement of words, and use of metaphor, and simile. As per Longinus words must be chosen for the formation of the impressive style. He adds "Beautiful words are truth the very light of thought". Next, he talks about the use of metaphor. He includes metaphor as a queen of metaphor, and simile and comparison under the heading of figure. Metaphors are used to give the necessary elevation to style. There should be no rules on how many metaphors should be used, rather it is the insight of genius that decides it. 

Dignified Composition - It is the fifth source of the sublime. As per Longinus words must be harmoniously set not only of persuasion and pleasure but of lofty emotion as well. Such a harmonious combination of words appeals to the soul and enables the reader to share in the emotion of the author. Further, Longinus praised the hexameter and said it was most beautiful.

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Modern Education and Classic - Eliot

Modern Education and Classic

"Modern Education and Classic" is an essay by T S Eliot. In this essay, Eliot presents his views regarding the modern education system. The essay commences with a tone of dissatisfaction over the contemporary education system. He blames the unsettled and disarrangement of society as a real cause of the worsening of education in society. The vague and diverse opinions of people lead to more chaos and meaninglessness in the relation of education to the social system.

Eliot says the "theory of education" must be derived from our philosophy of life. We must know what we want in education and what we want in general.

This disintegration of education in society, which Eliot calls 'Crisis of Education'. While defining the reason for this crisis Eliot says,

"The progress of education of several countries has been one aspect a drift, from another aspect a push; for it has tented to be dominated by the idea of getting on".

Further, Eliot mentions,

"The Individual wants more education, not as an act of the acquition of wisdom but in order to get on; the nation wants more in order to get the better of the other nations, the class wants it to get better of the other classes, or at least hokd against them".

Therefore, Education is associated with technical efficiency on the one hand and writing on the other. The prime purpose of education is to become a tool to get more money, power over others, a better social position and at least a respectable job. "If these thongs would not be provided by education then there are very few people who will take the trouble to educate themselves"

        Next, Eliot says, To dismiss the miserable 'stop-gap' idea and to diminish unemployment the age of enrollment of children should be raised. He refutes the idea of  'more years of education', and instead emphasises the government should make its elementary education as good as possible and limit the number of students treated in 'higher education'. 

        To overcome this problem of who should educate, how and why, Eliot discerns three tendencies in education i.e. the liberal, the radicalism and the orthodox.

"The liberal attitude is apt to maintain the apperently unobjectionable view that education is not mere acquisition of  facts, but a traning of mind as an instrument, to deal any class of facts , to reason , and to apply training ontain in one depaerment apply in new one."

Liberalism, as per Eliot, assesses that students should choose the subject according to their own bent. But, he refutes that and says that it is a danger because students will become overspecialized in their desired subject, and they will be wholly ignorant of the general interest of human beings. In Eliot's  view, "No one can become really educated without having persuaded some study in which he took no interest." For Eliot, liberalism committed the folly of pretending that one subject is as good as another for study.

Commenting on Radicalism, he says, 

"Radicalism, which is offspring of liberlism, discard this attitude of univrsal toleration and pronounces Latin and Greek to be subject of little import."

It proceeds to organise the vital issues and rejects what is not vital. However, Radicalism can be applauded for wanting something to select and eliminate, even if it wants to select and eliminate wrong things.

In the third discern i.e. orthodox, Eliot says that the ideal society can be cultivated by preserving what is right and helpful for development, and discouraging what is useless and distracting. For this Latin and Greek should be preserved, and for their preservation all education must be religious. However, he does not want to confine education to the tenant of religion, but in education, the hierarchy of religion should be followed. He has opposed the secularization of education because in his view universities have lost any common fundamental assumption as to what education is for.

Being an orthodox follower Eliot supports Christian civilization and emphasises bringing back the monastic teaching and its expansion because only then Latin and Greek can survive. The other reasons are the following:-

• educational task of the communities should be the preservation of education within the cloister, uncontaminated by the deluge of barbarism outside.
• the provision of education for the laity.

At last, he says, as the world at large becomes more completely secularised, the need becomes more urgent than professedly Christian people should have Christian education, which should be an education both for this world and for the life of the prayer in this world.

 

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Defects of Shakespeare-Preface to Shakespeare

Quotes from "Preface to Shakespeare", written by Samuel Johnson

Preface to Shakespeare is a critical essay by the neo-classical writer Samuel Johnson. In this essay, he has judged the merits and demerits of William Shakespeare's plays. Here are some of the defects of his plays-

Defect/Demarite in Shakespeare- 

"His first defect is that to which may be imputed most of the evil in books or in men. He sacrifices virtue to convenience and is so much more careful to please than to instruct, that he seems to write without any moral purpose." [362-365]

👉The first defect that can be attributed to Shakespeare is that there is evil in his works. His prime purpose was to entertain his audiences, not to instruct them which is why he sacrificed virtues and wrote without moral purpose.

"He makes no just distribution of good or evil, nor always be careful to show in the virtuous a disapprobation of the wicked; he carries his persons indifferently through right and wrong, and at the close dismisses them without further care, and leaves their examples to operate by chance... for it is always writer's duty to make the world batter, and justice is a virtue independent on time or place." [368-375]

👉Shakespeare does not distinguish between good and evil. His characters irrespective of their virtues and vices, are filled with all human qualities and when they reach that point where the opposite qualities are very close to each other and require distinction then he leaves them to operate by the time and place in which they are confronting. By remanding the duty of a writer, Johnson says that the writer must make the world better. Justice is a virtue and free from time and place.

"The Plots are often so loosely formed, that a very slight consideration may improve them, and so careless pursued, that he seems not always fully to comprehend his own design. He omits opportunities of instructing or delighting which the train of his story seems to force upon him, and apparently rejects those exhibitions which would be more affecting, for the sake of those which are more easy."

 

"It may be observed, that in many of his plays that latter part is evidently neglected. When he found himself near the end of his work and in view of his reward, he shortened the labour to snatch the profit." [383-385]

"In Tragedy his performance seems constantly to be worse, as his labour is more. The effusion of passion which exigence forces out are for the most part striking and energetic; but whenever he solicits his invention, or strains his faculties, the offspring of his throes os tumour, meanness, tediousness, and obscurity." [414-419]

Merits of Shakespeare

Source-

ENGLISH CRITICAL TEXTS by  Ernst De Chickera D J Enright.

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Johnson's quotes- Preface to Shakespeare

Quotes from "Preface to Shakespeare", written by Samuel Johnson

Preface to Shakespeare is a critical essay by the neo-classical writer Samuel Johnson. In this essay, he has judged the merits and demerits of William Shakespeare's plays. Here are some of the merits of his plays-

Merits/Qualities of Shakespeare-

"Nothing can please many, and please long, but just representation of general nature." [80-81]

👉Here, Johnson says that the popularity and demand of any play lies in its true representation of human nature.

"Shakespeare is above all writers, at least above all modern writers, the poet of nature; the poet that holds up to his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life."[88-90]

👉In Johnson's view Shakespeare is the greatest among all writers, particularly above all modern writers, because he presents the true nature of human beings. He faithfully presents genuine emotions- hate, love, anger, jealousy, of common people through his characters. In that condition how a person will behave and think is also presented through his play.

"His characters...are the genuine progeny of common humanity,...his persons act and speak by the influence of those general passion and principles by which all minds are agitated, and the whole system of life is continued in motion." [90-98]

👉 Here, Johnson says that Shakesperae's characters are true to the nature of humans. The elementary feelings and emotions that perturb, perplex, and worry the mind of the common human, the same emotions are the driving force of his characters.

"...But the dialogue of this author is often so evidently determined by the incident which produces it, and is pursued with so much ease and simplicity, that it seems scarcely to claim the merit of fiction, but to have been gleaned by diligent selection out of common conversation and common occurrence." [123-128]

👉Here, Johnson presents his view regarding Shakespeare's language selection in his play. According to Johnson, the selection of words of Shakespeare's characters is raised from the incident and the emotions in which she/he is in. He diligently selects the common dialogue and languages. The language is so simple that it hardly bears the shreds of evidence that his works have any merit.

"Upon every other stage, the universal agent is love, by whose power all good and evil is distributed, and every action quickened and retarded. To bring a lover, a lady and a rival into the fable; to entangle them in contradictory obligations, perplex them with  oppositions of interest, and harass them with violence of desires inconsistent with each other..."  [129-134]

👉In every other dramatic work of Shakespeare the universal or the prime agent which sets the action in motion is love. It is love that brings a lover, a lady and a rivel and entangles them in contradictory obligation, feeling and thought.

"Shakespeare has no heroes; his scenes are occupied only by men and speak as the reader thinks that he should himself have spoken or acted on the same occasion: Even the agency is supernatural the dialogue is levelled with life." [160-164]

👉Johnson says that Shakespeare's plays have no hero because his heroes speak and act in such a that if a common human were there she /he would act in similar ways. Johnson further mentions that even the supernatural agency has a dialogue that parallels with humans. For instance- In Tempest Ariel speaks, and feels just like humans.

" Shakespeare approximates the remote, and familiarizes the wonderful; the event that represents will not happen, but if it were possible, its effects would be such as he has assigned...This therefore is the praise of Shakespeare, that his drama is the mirror of life." [167-170,173-74]

👉It is Shakespeare's genius that presents even the remotest events of human life that apparently will not happen but if would happen then the person will respond in such situations as his characters have responded on the stage. That is why he has been praised and his dramas are considered as a "mirror of life".

"Shakespeare always makes nature predominance over accident; and if he preserves the essential characters, is not very careful of distinctions superinduced and adventitious."

👉In Shakespeare's play, the nature of the character plays more role than the events or accidents. It is the nature of characters that brings him in any accident and rise or downfall, For instance- The suffering of Lear in "King Lear" is due to his nature (i.e. the love of flattery), and this nature in him provokes anger for Cordelia and becomes a cause of his unbearable suffering.

Source-

ENGLISH CRITICAL TEXTS by  Ernst De Chickera D J Enright.

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Quotes from novel Prophet Song

 Simon

"If you change the ownership of institutions then you can change the ownership of facts, you can alter the structure of belief, what is agreed upon"

"If you say one thing is another thing and you say it enough times, then it must be so, and if you keep saying it over and over people accept it as true"

"Sooner or later, of course, reality reveals itself, he says, you can borrow for a time against reality but reality is always waiting, patiently, silently, to exact a price and level the scales" 

Eilish Stack

"All boys grow up and pull away from home to unmake the world in the guise of making  it"

"All of your life you have been asleep, all of us sleeping and now the great walking begins"

"The child that is born from the body remains always a part of the body"

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What is Culture Industry?

The term Culture Industry was coined by two German thinkers Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno in their book Dialectic of Enlightenment, in 1944. As per PK Nayer, the 'Culture Industry' is mainly used to describe mass culture forms. It transforms an individual from a thinking and discerning individual into an unthinking individual. The Culture Industry does not want the consumer to think but merely consume. In the Marxist's view 'Culture' is not an abstract thing that is created by an individual genius. Rather, it is a product of any society's economic and social conditions.

Adorno and Horkheimer have mentioned that the Culture Industry claims standards are based on consumers' choice, which is an illusion. Rather, the culture Industry decides what should be catered to an individual. In this cut-throat competition, the interested party uses various technological terms to manipulate people and help the culture industry increase its hold on people. Its manipulative technique alienates an individual from himself and herself which results in easy control of his or her consciousness that has the potential to resist the control of the culture industry. By sacrificing the distinction between the logic of work and the social system, it turns an individual just a passive consumer.

Since the monopoly of the Culture Industry exists only in comparison and the Cultural Industry itself relies on other powerful industries such as the Electric industry and the Banking Sector. That is why the culture industry cannot afford to neglect the appeasement of its real power holders. Consequently, it divides people into different categories i.e. red, green, and blue. Each category has provided something to consume that appears only different in style. For instance- the difference between any two films or any stories in the magazine is not based on the subject matter instead it differs only on style and appearance. This difference helps the culture industry to classify, organise and label its consumers. 

The Culture Industry acquires power through technology. However, it hardly mentions that the "basis on which technology acquires power over society is the power of those whose economic holds over society is greatest". Instead, it formalized the procedure which can be seen when all products are proven to be all alike in the end. For instance- In a film, hit song, or soap opera, the specific contents of its entertainment itself are derived from them and only appear to be changed. Even the gags, jokes and effects are calculated and deliberately placed by an expert.

Nevertheless, this caricature of the Culture Industry, which promises style, does not amount to something which is beyond the genuine style of the past. In the Culture Industry, the notion of genuine style can be seen to be seen to be the aesthetic equivalent of domination. The unity of style expresses only the structure of social power and not the obscure experience of the oppressed. Furthermore, Horkheimer and Adorno mention that "The great artists were never those who embodied a wholly flawless and perfect style, but those who used the style as a way of hardening themselves against the chaotic expression of suffering as a negative truth."

Conclusively, The Culture Industry refers to a mass culture where entertainment and its forms convert an individual into a passive consumer. The culture industry, therefore, produces unthinking masses of people who accept commodified sentiment and entertainment as 'natural'.

Source:- 

Literary Theory An ANthology- Juile Rivkin, Michael Ryan

Contemporary Literary and Cultural Theory- P K Nayar

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Paul Lynch's Prophet Song

The Prophet Song is a remarkable novel of the contemporary era. It is written by an Irish novelist Paul Lynch. The novel portrays a dictatorial government which is altering every fact and belief of people. Further, it also portrays a mother's determination to save her family from the torture of GNSB, as the democratic republic of Ireland slides inexorably into totalitarianism. In the novel, the socio-political picture of Ireland has been interpreted so well that it has its resonance with modern times across the globe. This novel puts a woman named, Eilish Stack at the centre of the novel's content that requires the serious and critical attention of the reader to analyse the contemporary issues of human concern, such as 'nation', 'nationalism', 'gender', 'feminism', and 'post-humanistic perspective' along with contemporary attempts to criticize the newer narration in the realm of style that has emerged forcefully in the novel Prophet Song.

Characters in 'Prophet Song'

Eilish Stack- the protagonist, microbiologist and mother of four children named- Mark, Molly, Bailey, and Ben, Lives at St. Laurance Street.

Larry Stack- husband of Eilish Stack and Deputy Secretary General of the Teachers' Union of Ireland.

Simon- Father of Eilish Stack, and a microbiologist

Philip Brophy- a journalist

Jim Sexton- husband of Carole Sexton

Samantha- daughter of Carol Sexton and Girlfriend of Mark.

Mr. Stamp- detective inspector

Mr Burke- gardai officer

Michael Given

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Unity Amidst Diversity

Unity Amidst Diversity by Dr Rajendra Prashad

Short Intro.-

The first president of India, Dr Rajendra Prashad was born in Ziradei, in the Siwan district of Bihar. He was influenced by the courage, dedication, and conviction of Mahatma Gandhi. His determination toward the service of the nation inspired students like- Dr Shri Krishna Shinha, and Dr Anugrah Narayan. In October 1934, he was elected as president of the Indian National Congress during the Bombay Session.

Unity Amidst Diversity, though, is an essay but literally, it's an inaugural address to an all-India Cultural Conference in Delhi on March 15, 1951. His speech deals with the themes of non-violence, truth, self-aggrandisement, self-indulgence, self-gratification, and the mechanical world. He emphasised that the "Idea of service must be given universal acceptance".

At the commencement of the essay, Dr Prashad mentions that an unfamiliar person with India's characteristics can't consider it as a single nation rather than an aggregate of nations because here she/he will come across innumerable features. On precise observation, she/he will find that this nation does not only have all kinds of climates but the people of diverse geographical regions, have several languages, live with so much harmony that can't be put into words. He says such diversity as a necklace in which each gem enhances its beauty. Further to support his argument he says that the immortal principle is the principle of truth and ahimsa, which is vital for humanity, is rooted in our culture, is the cause of such diversity. He also mentions that our whole consciousness is suffered by this principle which occasionally incarnates itself into a humane form and makes us aware. And because of this we assimilate the people of different cultures and establish a link with love. We win the hearts of people and therefore, traces of our influences are still found all over the world.

However, Dr Prashad while placing his views on historical ethical consciousness i.e.- the idea of truth, non-violence, and renunciation, said that we cannot keep ourselves in isolation in the era of modern science so we should find a way in which harmony could be established between our indigenous culture and science. He showed his concern for people who value the competitive economic quality of ruthless self-aggrandisement over the idea of historical ethical consciousness. He points out that this aggressive egoism led to the emergence of class war, heartless politics and exploitation. Men have become a part of a machine and life is governed by the principle of "Might is Right".

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Character sketch of Rukmani- Nectar in a Sieve

Rukmani is a protagonist of highly acclaimed the novel "Nectar in a Sieve" published in 1954. The novel is authored by Kamla Markandey (1924 to 2004), who is known for her realistic portrayal of Indian society. The title of this Nobel is taken from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's short poem “Work Without Hope” (1825). As the heroine of this novel, Rukmani narrates her own life experiences, transformation, unfulfilled desires, and people whom she meets and her relationship with those people.

        Rukmini is the younger daughter of the village headman. She is the wife of Nathan and mother of eight children named- Irrawaddy, Arjun Thambi, Murugan, Raja, Selvan, Kuti and adopted child Pully. She is a friend of Kali, Janki, Kunti, Old Granny and Doctor Canny as well as a mother-in-law of Murugan's wife.

        Psychologically, she is a strong woman and has an optimistic disposition. When her desire for a Grand marriage like her sisters' remains unfulfilled, because of her father's financial condition, and she is bound to marry a poor farmer who has nothing but a small thatched hut. She accepts it quietly. When she reaches Nathan's house, after seeing her home she wants to cry and feels-

                  

                     "my knees, first the crime to one,

                      then, the other, and I sent down". 

but the glimpses of hope in his eyes give her an inner strength which holds her. She without complaining anything to him tries to be a good companion. In the ternary, when one of her children dies, she, rather than expressing her dissatisfaction, accepts it as a natural incident. In such a situation where movements of happiness are transitory, her positive and humble disposition develops internal courage that gives her the strength to work hard and stand with her family.

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        Rukmani's temperament is both traditional as well as progressive. When her daughter Irrawaddy turns 14, then Rukmani becomes anxious about her marriage which reveals her traditional temper, another instance of the same temper is unveiled when she forbades her son to work in a tannery because she has the prejudice notion that she does not belong to that class who works in tannery. On the contrary, her progressive temper is portrayed when she remarks on Muslim women. When she, at first, encounters a Muslim woman, fully covering her body she feels that this woman cannot enjoy the liberty and beauty of life, they are far from the warmth of the Sun and the touch of a cold breeze.

        Markandey, Through Rukmini, exemplifies the feminist rights and ability of a woman. being a woman, she helps her husband in the field. Like Nathan, she grows vegetables and sells them to support her family. Sometimes she earns more than Nathan and saves money for her daughter's wedding without acknowledgement of her husband. After marriage, She has no boy child which is why she goes to Doctor Kenny, a white man, for her treatment and when her daughter faces the same problem, Rukmani encourages her and helps her to go to Kenny. However, she takes these stapes without her husband's consent and also hesitates to disclose it because meeting a woman to an outsider in the absence of her husband and without his consent is considered indecorous. However, these stapes are examples of east-wast encounters where Rukmani, despite knowing the fact that if she is caught she will lose her place in her husband's eyes, tries to break the traditional restriction which has been put on women by society.

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The Era of Anglo-Norman Period

The Era of Anglo-Norman Period(1066-1350)

The Normans:

The name "Norman" is attributed to the Northmen who originated from Scandinavia. These individuals were known for their robustness as seafarers. In the 10th century, they invaded the French coast and conquered the entire northern region. However, unlike their previous behaviour, they chose to intermarry with the advanced civilization of the north rather than destroy it.

The locals, known as Franks, embraced the French culture and language, abandoning their own customs. The inhabitants embraced and enhanced the Roman culture of the locals. After evolving from uncivilized Viking tribes, they became the most refined and educated population in Europe. The merging of Norse and French ancestry, also known as the Roam Gallic, resulted in a community with strong determination, dynamism, inquisitive nature, and creative thinking.

The Conquest of Anglo-Norman

Before the fight at Hastings and the takeover of England, there reigned a Saxon leader by the name of Harold. In the year 1066, during the battle at Hastings, the power of the last Saxon kings, specifically that of Harold, was shattered. As a result, William, the Duke of Normandy, ascended to the throne of England. This conquest brought about a remarkable change in literature, as the Normans introduced bright and romantic tales of love and adventure. However, in the beginning, the Normans and Saxons lived separately, with a master-servant relationship. Over three centuries, the Normans and Saxons gradually merged, resulting in a significant impact on the language and literature of the Anglo-Saxons.

IMPACT OF INVASION ON ANGLO-SAXON CULTURE

Upon the founding of Willian's kingdom, Normandy introduced French literature and language, resulting in the Anglo-Saxon language shedding most of its Germanic influences and becoming more simplified. English then assimilated a majority of French vocabulary and became the dominant language. As a reflection of this evolution, English literature now incorporates a blend of both French and Saxon elements.

The Saxon's victory at Hastings has three significant consequences. These include-

1. The Normans were responsible for introducing the customs and practical values of the Roman civilization to English society.

2. The concept of a Nation was imposed, to establish a powerful governing body to replace the weak control of a Saxon leader over his people. This further demonstrates that exceptional literature can only originate from a powerful nation.

3. The influx of a new language and literature from abroad brought wealth to England, and over time our English language gradually assimilated these influences.

THE LITERARY WORKS DURING THE NORMAN ERA

A manuscript from around 1330, found, is a remarkable representation of the literature during the Norman period. This literature was mainly produced by the clergy and nobles, with a single manuscript often containing all the reading material for a castle or village. This manuscript can be seen as a precursor to modern libraries. Its contents include metrical and verse romances featuring French, Celtic, and English heroes such as Roland, Arthur, Tristram, and Bevis of Hampton. There are also tales of Alexander, the Greek romance "Flores and Blanchefleur", and a compilation of Oriental stories known as "The Seven Wise Masters." Other notable works include legends of the Virgin Mary and saints, a treatise on the seven deadly sins, biblical history, a dispute among birds regarding women, a love song or bawdy tale with a French touch, a chronicle of English kings and Norman barons, and a political satire.

ESSENTIAL LITERARY PIECES FROM THE ANGLO-SAXON ERA

POETRY can be categorized into three main groups for simplicity.

1. HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS - Within this timeframe, there was a significant increase in the production of poetic accounts. These accounts stand out for their incorporation of narratives, creativity, and often, lively writing styles.

(a) Layamon's Brut - Layamon, a monk from the Arley kings in Worcestershire, composed Brut around 1205. This literary work chronicles the history of Britain from the arrival of Brutus to the demise of Cadwallader. Layamon drew heavily from 'Roman de Brut' by Wace as his main source. The poem consists of approximately 16000 lines, all written in alliterative form. The language used in Layamon's Brut is considered to be archaic.

(b) Robert of Gloucester - Renowned for his rhyming chronicle, Robert of Gloucester is a monk from Gloucester who composed his work in the late 13th century. It is believed to be a collaborative effort of multiple authors, heavily influenced by the writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth, William of Malmesbury, and other chroniclers. Robert's affection for his homeland shines through in his portrayal of Arthur as the central figure in his work.

(c) Robert of Manning of Brunne - He hails from Broune, a town in Lincolnshire. He wrote a rhymed 'history of England' which he completed on Friday, May 25, 1338, between three and four in the afternoon. It covers events from Noah and the Flood to the death of Edward 1st and is written in Alexandrian couplets. Among his other works is Handlyng Synne, which he began in 1303. It is based on William of Wadigton's Manuel des Pechiez and is intended for the common people. Handlyng Synne is written in couplets with four stressed lines in each.

2. POETRY OF RELIGION AND TEACHING.

(a) Orm, who wrote The Ormulum around 1200, used a dialect from the north-east midlands and addressed it to a fellow canon-regular named Walter. This autobiography consists of 10,000 lines, though it remains incomplete. The meter of the text is based on the Latin septenarius and follows a unique system of spelling where consonants are frequently doubled. It is believed that the name "Ormulum" was given to this work because it was written by Orm himself.

(b) The poem, The Owl and Nightingale, was most likely composed in the first part of the 13th century. It presents a lengthy debate between the nightingale, symbolizing the carefree happiness of life, and the owl, representing wisdom and moderation. The structure of the poem is made up of short rhyming couplets, which are executed with great proficiency.

(c) The works "The Orison to our Lady", "Genesis", "Exodus", "The Bestiary", "The Moral ode", "The Proverbs of Alfred", and "The Proverbs of Hendyng" can be traced back to the 13th century and hold significant value in terms of their metrical composition.

(d) The Cursor Mundi is a comprehensive religious text that covers both the old and new aspects of faith.

(e) Richard Rolle of Hampole is a notable literary figure whose personal life is well-documented. He authored several prose pieces, with his most significant work being the lengthy poem "The Pricke of Conscience". This piece delves into the highs and lows of human existence.

(f) Alliterative Poems.- Perl, Purity, Patience, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight are all examples of poems written in the West Midlands dialect. The exact authorship and date of these poems are unknown. However, the first three poems all have a religious theme.

3. Love and Affection.

During this period, numerous romantic stories were organized based on their subject matter.

(a) Among the finest works are the lively "King Horn" and "Havelock the Dane", the "Popular Work of Warwick" and the popular "Guy of Warwick" and "Bevis of Hampton", which all explore English history and heroic tales to the fullest.

(b) A multitude of love stories exist that revolve around the legendary figure of King Arthur.

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