John Milton

The Age of Milton

Literary features:-

(a) During this period, it is clearly apparent the decline of Elizabethan standards in several ways- (1) the fashion of shorter poems, especially the lyrics of a peculiar type. (2) Decay in the high poetical arduous.

(b)This age has few great writers among Milton stands the very great. His prose is among the finest controversial writing and his poetic achievements are considered to be second to that of Shakespeare.

(c) There is a group of poets who have the influence of Donne called the "Metaphysical Poets" by Dr Johnson. Their poems are full of imagery and striking conceits, revealing great psychological insight and delicacy of thought development. It includes poets like- Crashaw, Georg Herbert, Vaughan, and Marvell.

(d) There is another group of poets called "The Cavalier Poets". They dealt with the theme of Love. Henerck, Lovelace, and Suckling represent this group.

(e) Prose made an expansion in the age. The output was excellent and there was a notable advance in seroman. But drama collapsed in this age. 

John Milton (1608-1674) was born in Bradstreet, Cheapside, London, England, Jason of money-scrivener, educated at St. Paul's School, London and at Cambridge. At university, he was sent down for a term because of his stubbornness, ill-temperedness, and insubordination. He refused to enter the church. Poetry, Mathematics, and Music were his main studies. In 1938, he met many scholars and literary men in Italy during his continent tour.

He was an active supporter of the parliamentary. In 1943, he married but soon his wife left him for two years and this unfortunate occurrence forced him to write two pamphlets on divorce. In 1964, he was appointed secretary for foreign tongue by the Commonwealth Government. He retore an obscure village in Buckinghamshire to write poetry. He died and was buried in London. 

His works:-

(1) Prose- a large number of Milton's prose was written during 1640-1660; the middle period of his life. At this time he was also busy with public affairs. His prose has a usual interest. One of his prose works is "Of Education" (1644) at the same time he published one of his greatest tracts "Arcopagitica" in 1644; it is a notable and earnest plea for the liberty of the press. He began pamphleteering at the time when he was engaged in a lively controversy with Bishop Hall over episcopacy. In 1643 and 1644 he wrote two pamphlets on divorce that horrify the public. During the last years of his life, he partially completed the "History of Britain".

As far as his prose style is concerned. They are characterized by strong and conflicting emotions and disorder. voluble, violent and lax in style. they reveal intense zeal and pugnacity. They lack humour.

(2) Poetry- Milton's poetry was written during two periods separated from each other by twenty years: (a) the period of his university career and his stay at Horton, from 1629 to 1640. (b) the last year of his life, from 1660 to 1674.

(a) At university, Milton began to compose poems of remarkable maturity which shoe his impressive diction and high ideas. These poems are- "Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity" (1629), "On Shakespeare" (1630), and "On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-three" (1631). At Harton, he composed two long poems in octasyllabic copulates that deal with specific experiences of the gay and thoughtful man. These two poems are- "L'Allegero" and "Il Penseroso". His other works are- "Comus" (1634), and "Lycidas" (1637) an elegy for his friend Edward King. It is also his one of highest achievements.

(b) The period from 1660-1674 gives poetry of a mature kind. The great works of this period are-"Paradise Lost" (begun in 1658 and published in 1667). In the beginning, it had ten parts but its second edition was re-divided into twelve parts. It deals with the fall of man. 

In 1671 Milton issued "Paradise Regained" and "Samson Agonistes".

Milton also composed sonnets during the time between these two periods. His best sonnets are- "On his Blindness" and "On the late Massacre in Piedmont".

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The Puritan Age and Literary Charistricts

The Puritan Age (1620-1660)

Most broadly, The Puritan movement is a rebirth of the moral nature of man followed by the intellectual awakening of Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Puritans were neither a religious sect nor narrow-minded as many Historians pictured.

Pym, Hampden, Eliot and Milton were Puritans and were honoured. They struggled for human liberty. Cromwell and Thomas Hooker were also Puritans. Cromwell strongly supported religious tolerance while Hooker gave the world the first written constitution. That Puritan document is one of the greatest achievements in the history of government.

Since Puritans were in favour of religious tolerance, Puritanism included all sheds of religious beliefs. Puritanism is the name given to the people who wanted change in worship in the reformed English churches. But this idea was opposed by the king, his evil counsellors and a band of intolerant churchmen. Later this Puritanism movement turned into a national movement.

It includes English Churchmen as well as extreme separatists, Calvinists, Covenanters, and Catholic novel men who stand together and resist the dictatorship in church and state, with a passion for liberty and righteousness.

Even today in history Puritans were portrayed as gloomy and dogmatic, perhaps it has two reasons:- 

(1) Such a huge movement with extremes and excesses has produced a few zealots and fanatics that created our misconception.

(2) When Puritans won under Cromwell many simple pleasures were forbidden, and strict standards were forced on unwilling people.

Literary Charistricts:-

It is one of a confusing age due to the breaking up of old ideals. Poetry took a new and astonishing form in Donne and Herbert. The prose becomes sombre. This age produced some minor poems of extremely delicate workmanship. One great master of this age is Milton that's why sometimes this age is also called "The Age of Milton".

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Biography of Kamala Das and her Works

The Mother of Modern Indian English Poetry, a prominent voice of the colonial era, and an Iconoclast, Kamala Das was born in a conservative Brahmin family on 31st March 1934. She, in her family, experiences patriarchial prejudice and its subjugation. Though her mother- Balamani Amma was a famous poet, her father was an editor and her Grand Uncle- Nalapat Narayana Menon, was a respected writer.  

Culturally,  her childhood is very enriched. She is a multilingual writer who knows her mother tongue- Malayalam and English. She has two names Madhavikutty- for her Malayalam readers and Kamla Das- for English readers.

Her career began at the age of 06 when she started writing a manuscript which is a collection of her sad poems. However, at the age of 15, she married and moved to Bombay where she is always weighed down by the expectations of her husband, family and Society to be a good wife or mother.  Still, she continues her writing.

Kamala Das is essentially known for her bold and frank expression. She speaks about the problem of women in a patriarchal society that forced women to confine themselves and keep silent. Her work in itself is a platform and voice that echoes the problems and issues related to women. While representing women's issues she is honest and free from any sense of guilt. she breaks the traditional rules without taking care of society giving her the title Iconoclast. 

Furthermore, An acute obsession with love and confessional elements are features of her poetry. That's why she is known as a Confessional writer in Indian English writing and is classified with other confessional, American writers like- Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton. One of his remarkable confessional works is "An Introduction" (a poem ). Her other Voluminous poems are- "The Summer in Calcutta" (1965), "The Descendents" (1967), "A Hot Noon in Malabar" and "The Old Playhouse and Others"(1973).

Literally, she is known for her poetry but she also wrote novels and an autobiography. One of her autobiography works is "My Story" and her Novel is "Alphabet of Lust".

She got the Sahitya Academy Award in 1965. She died in 2009 and was buried in the Palayam Juma Masjid.

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Elizabethan Playwright

 The Age of Elizabeth and Playwrights

University Wits refers to a group of young men mostly belongs to Oxford and Cambridge. It includes George Peele, Robert Green Thomas Nash, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Kyd, and Christopher Marlowe.Their works were mainly centred on Heroic themes that were tragic in nature. The heroic theme needs heroic treatment with great fullness and variety, splendid descriptions, and long swelling speeches. Their style was also 'heroic', and the chief aim was to achieve solid, sound lines and a powerful declaration.

Important playwrights of University Wits are-

(a) George Peele (1558-98) was born in London and educated at Christ's Hospital and at Oxford. His play includes- "The Araygnement of Paris"(1584), "The Famous Chronicle of King Edward the Frist"(1593), "The Old Wives"(1591-94), "The Love of King David and Fair Bethsabe"(published in 1599).

(b) Robert Greene (1558-92)  was born in Norwich, educated at Cambridge (1575) and Oxford (1588), and took literary life in London. His plays are four in number- "Alphonsus, King of Aragon"(1587), "Orlando Furioso"(1591), and "The Scottish Historie of James the Fourth"(acted in 1592).

(c) Thomas Nash (1567-1601)  was born at Lowestoft, educated at Cambridge and went to London to make his living by literature.

His works are- "Summer's Last Will and Treatment"(1592), a satirical masque, "The Unfortunate Traveller, or the Life of Jacke Wilton"(1592), a prose tale.

(d) Thomas Lodge(1558-1625)  was the son of the Lord Mayor of London, educated at Oxford, and studied law. His dramatic work is small in quantity. 

(e) Thomas Kyd(1558-1594)  is one of the most important University Wits. Born in London, educated at Marchant Taylor's school and adopted a literary career. Much of his works have been lost, but his one surviving play is- "The Spanish Tragedie"(about 1585). Other plays are- "Cornelia"(1593), "Soliman and Perseda"(1588), "The First Part of Jeronimo"(1592).

(f) Christopher Marlowe(1564-1593)  was the greatest pre-Shakespearian dramatist, born at Canterbury and educated at Cambridge, He adopted a literary career as a profession. His all plays or tragedies were written within five years 1587-92. His works include- "Tamburlaine the Great" (1587), "Jew of Malta"(1589), "Edward II" (1591), and "The Tragedy of Dido, Queen of Carthage" (1593).

OTHER IMPORTANT DRAMATISTS ARE:-

1. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE 

POST-SHAKESPEARIAN DRAMATIST:-

(1) Ben Jonson(1573(?)- 1637) a posthumous child was born in Westminister and educated at Westminister school. Johnson's numerous works in comedies, tragedies, masques and lyrics are widely varying merit. His early comedies include- “Every Man in his humour” (1598), “Every man out of his humour” (1599), “Cynthia’s Revels” (1600), and “The Poetaster” (1601). His “Everyman in his humour” is his most excellent work. The middle group comedies include- “Volpone, or The Fox” (1605), “Epicaene, or The Silent Women” 1(609),  “The Alchemist” (1610), and “BartholomewFayre” (1614). His middle-group comedies are satirical in tone. "Epicaene" and "Bartholomew Fayre" are written entirely in prose. and "The Alchemist" is entirely in blank verse. His later comedies are- "The Devil is an Ass" (1616), and "The Staple of News" (1625). His two Historical tragedies are- "Sejanus his Fall"(1603), and "Catiline his Conspiracy" (1611). He also wrote masques. His best-known masques are- "The Masque of Beauty" (1608), "The Masque of Queen" (1609), and "Oberon, the Fairy Prince" (1611).

(2) Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) and John Fletcher (1579-1625) combined produced a great number of comedies, especially in the comedy of London life. Their plots sustain interest and are often ingenious, lively and entertaining. The plays sustain a high level of lucidity and simplicity in their style full of witty dialogue. Their comedies are- "A King and no King" (1611), "The Knight of the Burning Pestle" (1607(?)), "The Scornful Lady" (1613-1616). Their tragedies are- "The Maid's Tragedy" (1610(?)), "Philaster" (1611).

(3) John Marston (1575-1634) was born at Coventry, educated at Oxford and become a literary figure in London and took holy orders. He specialised in violent and melodramatic tragedies. His work includes- "Antonia and Mellida" (1599), and "Antonio's Revenge" (1602).

(4) Thomas Dekker (1572-1632) was born in London. His best plays are- "Old Fortunatus" (1599), "The Shoemakers' Holiday" (1599), and "Satiromastix" (1602). He collaborated with Ford and Rowley and produced- "The Witch of Edmonton" (1612). He also collaborated with Massinger and produced "The Virgin Martyr" (1620).

(5) Thomas Middelton (1570-1627) was born in London. He is one the most equable and literary dramatists of the age. His work "The Changeling" (1624) is a powerful play and was praised by Lamb and others. Other works include- "Women Beware Women" (1622), "The Witch", and "The Spanish Gipsy" (1623). Along with Dekker, he produced- "The Roaring Girle or Moll Cutpurse" (1611).

(6) Thomas Heywood (1575-1650) was born in Lincolnshire in about 1575, educated at Cambridge and become an author and dramatist in London. His best play is "A Woman Killed with Kindness" (1603). Other works are- "The English Traveller" (1633), "The Royall King and the Loyall Subject" (1602(?)), "The Captives" (1624).

(7) George Champan (1559-1634) was born at Hitchin and died in London. He writes well and has firmness, competence and variety. He wrote both Historical plays and Comedies. His historical plays are both comical and tragic. His historical plays are- "The Blind Begger of Alexendria" (1596): it is his first play, "Charles, Duke of Byron" (1608), and "The Tragedy of Chabot" (1613). Champan's comedy includes- "All Fools" (1605) and "Eastward Hoe!" (1605).

Source:-

History of English Literature

by Edward Albert & W.J. Long.

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