John Milton

The Age of Milton

Literary features:-

(a) During this period, it is clearly apparent the decline of Elizabethan standards in several ways- (1) the fashion of shorter poems, especially the lyrics of a peculiar type. (2) Decay in the high poetical arduous.

(b)This age has few great writers among Milton stands the very great. His prose is among the finest controversial writing and his poetic achievements are considered to be second to that of Shakespeare.

(c) There is a group of poets who have the influence of Donne called the "Metaphysical Poets" by Dr Johnson. Their poems are full of imagery and striking conceits, revealing great psychological insight and delicacy of thought development. It includes poets like- Crashaw, Georg Herbert, Vaughan, and Marvell.

(d) There is another group of poets called "The Cavalier Poets". They dealt with the theme of Love. Henerck, Lovelace, and Suckling represent this group.

(e) Prose made an expansion in the age. The output was excellent and there was a notable advance in seroman. But drama collapsed in this age. 

John Milton (1608-1674) was born in Bradstreet, Cheapside, London, England, Jason of money-scrivener, educated at St. Paul's School, London and at Cambridge. At university, he was sent down for a term because of his stubbornness, ill-temperedness, and insubordination. He refused to enter the church. Poetry, Mathematics, and Music were his main studies. In 1938, he met many scholars and literary men in Italy during his continent tour.

He was an active supporter of the parliamentary. In 1943, he married but soon his wife left him for two years and this unfortunate occurrence forced him to write two pamphlets on divorce. In 1964, he was appointed secretary for foreign tongue by the Commonwealth Government. He retore an obscure village in Buckinghamshire to write poetry. He died and was buried in London. 

His works:-

(1) Prose- a large number of Milton's prose was written during 1640-1660; the middle period of his life. At this time he was also busy with public affairs. His prose has a usual interest. One of his prose works is "Of Education" (1644) at the same time he published one of his greatest tracts "Arcopagitica" in 1644; it is a notable and earnest plea for the liberty of the press. He began pamphleteering at the time when he was engaged in a lively controversy with Bishop Hall over episcopacy. In 1643 and 1644 he wrote two pamphlets on divorce that horrify the public. During the last years of his life, he partially completed the "History of Britain".

As far as his prose style is concerned. They are characterized by strong and conflicting emotions and disorder. voluble, violent and lax in style. they reveal intense zeal and pugnacity. They lack humour.

(2) Poetry- Milton's poetry was written during two periods separated from each other by twenty years: (a) the period of his university career and his stay at Horton, from 1629 to 1640. (b) the last year of his life, from 1660 to 1674.

(a) At university, Milton began to compose poems of remarkable maturity which shoe his impressive diction and high ideas. These poems are- "Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity" (1629), "On Shakespeare" (1630), and "On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-three" (1631). At Harton, he composed two long poems in octasyllabic copulates that deal with specific experiences of the gay and thoughtful man. These two poems are- "L'Allegero" and "Il Penseroso". His other works are- "Comus" (1634), and "Lycidas" (1637) an elegy for his friend Edward King. It is also his one of highest achievements.

(b) The period from 1660-1674 gives poetry of a mature kind. The great works of this period are-"Paradise Lost" (begun in 1658 and published in 1667). In the beginning, it had ten parts but its second edition was re-divided into twelve parts. It deals with the fall of man. 

In 1671 Milton issued "Paradise Regained" and "Samson Agonistes".

Milton also composed sonnets during the time between these two periods. His best sonnets are- "On his Blindness" and "On the late Massacre in Piedmont".

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The Puritan Age and Literary Charistricts

The Puritan Age (1620-1660)

Most broadly, The Puritan movement is a rebirth of the moral nature of man followed by the intellectual awakening of Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Puritans were neither a religious sect nor narrow-minded as many Historians pictured.

Pym, Hampden, Eliot and Milton were Puritans and were honoured. They struggled for human liberty. Cromwell and Thomas Hooker were also Puritans. Cromwell strongly supported religious tolerance while Hooker gave the world the first written constitution. That Puritan document is one of the greatest achievements in the history of government.

Since Puritans were in favour of religious tolerance, Puritanism included all sheds of religious beliefs. Puritanism is the name given to the people who wanted change in worship in the reformed English churches. But this idea was opposed by the king, his evil counsellors and a band of intolerant churchmen. Later this Puritanism movement turned into a national movement.

It includes English Churchmen as well as extreme separatists, Calvinists, Covenanters, and Catholic novel men who stand together and resist the dictatorship in church and state, with a passion for liberty and righteousness.

Even today in history Puritans were portrayed as gloomy and dogmatic, perhaps it has two reasons:- 

(1) Such a huge movement with extremes and excesses has produced a few zealots and fanatics that created our misconception.

(2) When Puritans won under Cromwell many simple pleasures were forbidden, and strict standards were forced on unwilling people.

Literary Charistricts:-

It is one of a confusing age due to the breaking up of old ideals. Poetry took a new and astonishing form in Donne and Herbert. The prose becomes sombre. This age produced some minor poems of extremely delicate workmanship. One great master of this age is Milton that's why sometimes this age is also called "The Age of Milton".

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Biography of Kamala Das and her Works

The Mother of Modern Indian English Poetry, a prominent voice of the colonial era, and an Iconoclast, Kamala Das was born in a conservative Brahmin family on 31st March 1934. She, in her family, experiences patriarchial prejudice and its subjugation. Though her mother- Balamani Amma was a famous poet, her father was an editor and her Grand Uncle- Nalapat Narayana Menon, was a respected writer.  

Culturally,  her childhood is very enriched. She is a multilingual writer who knows her mother tongue- Malayalam and English. She has two names Madhavikutty- for her Malayalam readers and Kamla Das- for English readers.

Her career began at the age of 06 when she started writing a manuscript which is a collection of her sad poems. However, at the age of 15, she married and moved to Bombay where she is always weighed down by the expectations of her husband, family and Society to be a good wife or mother.  Still, she continues her writing.

Kamala Das is essentially known for her bold and frank expression. She speaks about the problem of women in a patriarchal society that forced women to confine themselves and keep silent. Her work in itself is a platform and voice that echoes the problems and issues related to women. While representing women's issues she is honest and free from any sense of guilt. she breaks the traditional rules without taking care of society giving her the title Iconoclast. 

Furthermore, An acute obsession with love and confessional elements are features of her poetry. That's why she is known as a Confessional writer in Indian English writing and is classified with other confessional, American writers like- Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton. One of his remarkable confessional works is "An Introduction" (a poem ). Her other Voluminous poems are- "The Summer in Calcutta" (1965), "The Descendents" (1967), "A Hot Noon in Malabar" and "The Old Playhouse and Others"(1973).

Literally, she is known for her poetry but she also wrote novels and an autobiography. One of her autobiography works is "My Story" and her Novel is "Alphabet of Lust".

She got the Sahitya Academy Award in 1965. She died in 2009 and was buried in the Palayam Juma Masjid.

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Elizabethan Playwright

 The Age of Elizabeth and Playwrights

University Wits refers to a group of young men mostly belongs to Oxford and Cambridge. It includes George Peele, Robert Green Thomas Nash, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Kyd, and Christopher Marlowe.Their works were mainly centred on Heroic themes that were tragic in nature. The heroic theme needs heroic treatment with great fullness and variety, splendid descriptions, and long swelling speeches. Their style was also 'heroic', and the chief aim was to achieve solid, sound lines and a powerful declaration.

Important playwrights of University Wits are-

(a) George Peele (1558-98) was born in London and educated at Christ's Hospital and at Oxford. His play includes- "The Araygnement of Paris"(1584), "The Famous Chronicle of King Edward the Frist"(1593), "The Old Wives"(1591-94), "The Love of King David and Fair Bethsabe"(published in 1599).

(b) Robert Greene (1558-92)  was born in Norwich, educated at Cambridge (1575) and Oxford (1588), and took literary life in London. His plays are four in number- "Alphonsus, King of Aragon"(1587), "Orlando Furioso"(1591), and "The Scottish Historie of James the Fourth"(acted in 1592).

(c) Thomas Nash (1567-1601)  was born at Lowestoft, educated at Cambridge and went to London to make his living by literature.

His works are- "Summer's Last Will and Treatment"(1592), a satirical masque, "The Unfortunate Traveller, or the Life of Jacke Wilton"(1592), a prose tale.

(d) Thomas Lodge(1558-1625)  was the son of the Lord Mayor of London, educated at Oxford, and studied law. His dramatic work is small in quantity. 

(e) Thomas Kyd(1558-1594)  is one of the most important University Wits. Born in London, educated at Marchant Taylor's school and adopted a literary career. Much of his works have been lost, but his one surviving play is- "The Spanish Tragedie"(about 1585). Other plays are- "Cornelia"(1593), "Soliman and Perseda"(1588), "The First Part of Jeronimo"(1592).

(f) Christopher Marlowe(1564-1593)  was the greatest pre-Shakespearian dramatist, born at Canterbury and educated at Cambridge, He adopted a literary career as a profession. His all plays or tragedies were written within five years 1587-92. His works include- "Tamburlaine the Great" (1587), "Jew of Malta"(1589), "Edward II" (1591), and "The Tragedy of Dido, Queen of Carthage" (1593).

OTHER IMPORTANT DRAMATISTS ARE:-

1. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE 

POST-SHAKESPEARIAN DRAMATIST:-

(1) Ben Jonson(1573(?)- 1637) a posthumous child was born in Westminister and educated at Westminister school. Johnson's numerous works in comedies, tragedies, masques and lyrics are widely varying merit. His early comedies include- “Every Man in his humour” (1598), “Every man out of his humour” (1599), “Cynthia’s Revels” (1600), and “The Poetaster” (1601). His “Everyman in his humour” is his most excellent work. The middle group comedies include- “Volpone, or The Fox” (1605), “Epicaene, or The Silent Women” 1(609),  “The Alchemist” (1610), and “BartholomewFayre” (1614). His middle-group comedies are satirical in tone. "Epicaene" and "Bartholomew Fayre" are written entirely in prose. and "The Alchemist" is entirely in blank verse. His later comedies are- "The Devil is an Ass" (1616), and "The Staple of News" (1625). His two Historical tragedies are- "Sejanus his Fall"(1603), and "Catiline his Conspiracy" (1611). He also wrote masques. His best-known masques are- "The Masque of Beauty" (1608), "The Masque of Queen" (1609), and "Oberon, the Fairy Prince" (1611).

(2) Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) and John Fletcher (1579-1625) combined produced a great number of comedies, especially in the comedy of London life. Their plots sustain interest and are often ingenious, lively and entertaining. The plays sustain a high level of lucidity and simplicity in their style full of witty dialogue. Their comedies are- "A King and no King" (1611), "The Knight of the Burning Pestle" (1607(?)), "The Scornful Lady" (1613-1616). Their tragedies are- "The Maid's Tragedy" (1610(?)), "Philaster" (1611).

(3) John Marston (1575-1634) was born at Coventry, educated at Oxford and become a literary figure in London and took holy orders. He specialised in violent and melodramatic tragedies. His work includes- "Antonia and Mellida" (1599), and "Antonio's Revenge" (1602).

(4) Thomas Dekker (1572-1632) was born in London. His best plays are- "Old Fortunatus" (1599), "The Shoemakers' Holiday" (1599), and "Satiromastix" (1602). He collaborated with Ford and Rowley and produced- "The Witch of Edmonton" (1612). He also collaborated with Massinger and produced "The Virgin Martyr" (1620).

(5) Thomas Middelton (1570-1627) was born in London. He is one the most equable and literary dramatists of the age. His work "The Changeling" (1624) is a powerful play and was praised by Lamb and others. Other works include- "Women Beware Women" (1622), "The Witch", and "The Spanish Gipsy" (1623). Along with Dekker, he produced- "The Roaring Girle or Moll Cutpurse" (1611).

(6) Thomas Heywood (1575-1650) was born in Lincolnshire in about 1575, educated at Cambridge and become an author and dramatist in London. His best play is "A Woman Killed with Kindness" (1603). Other works are- "The English Traveller" (1633), "The Royall King and the Loyall Subject" (1602(?)), "The Captives" (1624).

(7) George Champan (1559-1634) was born at Hitchin and died in London. He writes well and has firmness, competence and variety. He wrote both Historical plays and Comedies. His historical plays are both comical and tragic. His historical plays are- "The Blind Begger of Alexendria" (1596): it is his first play, "Charles, Duke of Byron" (1608), and "The Tragedy of Chabot" (1613). Champan's comedy includes- "All Fools" (1605) and "Eastward Hoe!" (1605).

Source:-

History of English Literature

by Edward Albert & W.J. Long.

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Renaissance or early Modern Period

Renaissance is a name commonly applied to the poetry of European History following the Middle Ages. Generally, It is said to have begun in Italy in the late fourteenth century and has continued in Italy and other Western European countries. In this period European art of painting, sculpture, architecture, and literature reached at its peak.  The development came late to England in the sixteenth century and its flowering started from the Elizabethan age and has influenced to later period also.

Renaissance started from-1500 and lasted until 1660 including ages such as -

Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)

Jacobean Age (1603-1625)

Caroline Age (1625-1649)

Commonwealth period (1649-1660)

Elizabethan Age (1558-1603):-  

This age is named after Queen Elizabethan I, and the term Elizabethan is used to refer to the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century. This was the age that saw the development in English commerce, maritime power, and nationalist feelings. It was a great age of English literature and the greatest in Drama. It was the age of William Shakespeare, Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlow, Edmund Spenser, Francis Bacon, and Ben Jonson.

Jacobean Age (1603-1625):-

This is the reign of James I (In Latin"Jacobus") after Elizabeth. This was the period in prose writing of Bacon, John Donne's sermons, Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, and the King James translation of the Bible. It was also the time of Shakespeare's greatest tragedies and tragicomedies and major writing by other notable poets and playwrights including Donne, Ben Jonson, Michael Drayton, Lady Mary Wroth, Sir Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, John Webster, George Chapman, Thomas Middleton, Philip Massinger, and Elizabeth Cary, whose notable Biblical drama "The Tragedy of  Mariam, The Faire Queene of Jewry" was the first long play by an Englishwomen to be published.

Caroline Age (1625-1649):- 

This is the reign of Charles I . (the name is derived from "Carolus," the Latin version of  "Charles".)  This was the time of the English Civil War fought between the supporters of the King (known as  "Cavaliers") and the supporters of parliament (known as "Roundheads"). John Milton was an important figure of this period. It was the time also of the religious poet George Herbert and prose writers Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne.

Commonwealth period (1649-1660):-

This period also known as Puritan  Interregnum extended from the execution of Charles I in 1649 to the restoration of Charles II in 1660. During the commonwealth, England was ruled by Parliament under the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell. Oliver died in 1658, marking the dissolution of this reign. During this reign, Drama was banned for eighteen(18) years. It was an age of Milton's political pamphlets, Hobbes's political treaties Leviathan (1651), the Walton, and the poets Henry Vaughan, Edmund Waller, Abraham Cowley, Sir William Davenant, and Andrew Marvell.

Source-

A Glossary of Literary Terms by M.H. Abrams.

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THE AGE OF CHAUCER (1350-1400)

Historical Background- The fourteenth century is a remarkable period in England. It is known for two great movements. First is Political which sees the growth of the national spirit following the victories of a hundred years of war. A wave of patriotic enthusiasm swept away the jealousy and mutual distrust among people. Also, the French language lost its official position and English became the whole nation's speech. Second, the movement marks the growing discontent within the contrast between luxury and poverty, between idle wealthy and overtaxed people. It happened during the reign of Richard III.

These two movements leave an impact on the literature of its time. Authors like William Langland, Wyclif, Gower, Mandeville and Chaucer mostly write about society, religion and its people. For instance- William Langland voiced social discontent, preaching equality of man and the dignity of labourers, Wyclif gave the Gospel to the people in their own tongue, Gower, the scholar, and literary man criticised this vigorous life, and is plainly afraid of its consequences. And the traveller, Mandeville romances about the wonder to be seen abroad. One of the most important authors is Chaucer whose works are not less than Shakespeare's.

 1. CHAUCER (1340? -1400)

Geoffrey Chaucer

Chaucer was the son of a merchant. He was born in London, though the date of birth is uncertain. He was an illiterate, but enthusiastic reader who spent his boyhood on Thames Street near the river. In 1357 he saw military service abroad where he was captured. After returning to England he becomes the squire of the royal house. In 1378 his literary power saw rapid development and had a prominent Italian literary influence. He died in 1400 and was the first poet to be buried in Westminister Abbey.

Chaucer's poetry is divided into three stages-

     1. The French 2. The Italian 3. The English

 The French poem is the earliest modelled upon the French original. The poem is immature and clumsy in style. It is "Romaunt of the Rose". His other poems include- "The Book of the Duchesse", "Compleynt unto Pite", An A.B.C, and " The Compleynt of Mars".

 The Italian shows a definite advance in the handling of the meters and technical ability. Works including- "Anelida and Arcite", "The Parliament of Foules", and "Troilus and Criseyde"; it is Chaucer's best narrative works. The third great poem is "Legend of Good Women". This poem is the first that has heroic couplets.

The English group contains the work of the greatest individual accomplishment. "The Canterbury Tales" is a masterpiece and one of the most famous works in all literature.

Features of Chaucer's poetry:-

 (a) He is the first who has had no competitor for a hundred years. This causes his work to have a unique position.

(b) His observation is very important. He was a man who freely mixed all types of mankind.

(c) He has great narrative power. Despite many lacking in his works- "Troilus and Criseyde", and "The Knight's Tale" contain many admirable narrative passages.

(d) In the matter of poetical technique English literature owes much to Chaucer. He virtually imported the decasyllabic line from France. The seven-line stanza a b a b b c c  has become known as a Chaucerian line or rime royale. 

2. William Langland (1332(?)- 1400(?))

He was born in Shropshire in about 1332. His early life lived in the fields as a shepherd. One of his poems "The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman" appears in the manuscript in three forms. These forms are respectively the A B and C  texts. The A text is the shortest, being about 2500 lines long, The B is more than 7200 lines, and C which is clearly based upon B is more than 7200 lines. The style of the poem has a sombre energy, an intense but crabbed seriousness, and an austere simplicity of treatment.

3. John Gower

John Gower is a man of means and belongs to a good Kentish family. His date of birth is uncertain but he died in 1408 and was buried in London. He produced three chief works. His first poem "Speculum Meditantis", is written in French, the second "Vox Clamantis", is composed in Latin, and the third "Confessio Amantis", is written in English.

4. John Barbour (1316(?) - 95)

He is the first Scottish poet who claims our attention. He was born in Aberdeenshire and studied both at Oxford and Paris. His great work is his "Bruce" (1375).

PROSE WRITERS-

1. Sir John Mandeville wrote and published a French book of travels between 1357 and 1371. This French work was very popular, and it was translated into several languages.

2. John Wycliff or Wycliffe(1320-84) was born in Yorkshire about the year 1320. He was educated at Oxford, took Holy orders, received the living of Lutterworth in Leicestershire(1374), and took a prominent part in the ecclesiastical feuds of the day. He died peacefully in 1384. One of his great works is the translation of the Bible. Wycliffe's English style is not polished. 

Source-

History of English Literature:-
W.J Long & Edward Albert.

Also, read-

DEFINE LITERATURE
ANGLO-NORMANS PERIOD

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Literature: its Features and Periods

The word Literature is derived from the Latin "litteraturae" meaning "writing". "Literature" is commonly used since the eighteenth century to designate fictional and imaginative writings (poetry, prose, fiction, and drama). In expanded use, it designates that works have some essential qualities such as Artistic,  Universality, Emotion, Imagination, and Permanence.

Characteristics of literature:-

Artistic- It is a significant quality of all literature. All art is an expression of life in the form of truth and beauty. Which remain unnoticed until brought to our attention by some sensitive human soul.                                    
Suggestive- It is the second quality. Its appeal to our emotions and imagination.  e.g.- When Faustus in the presence of Helen asks, "was this the face that launched a thousand ships"? He does not state a fact rather he opens a door of our imagination that enters in a new world- a world of love, music, beauty, and heroism.                 
Permanent- The third characteristic of literature,  arising directly from,  artistic and suggestiveness, is its permanence. It is determined by UNIVERSALITY and STYLE.

Universality is the appeal to the widest human interest and simplest human emotions. Good literature has these qualities and it knows no nation or boundary. It is equipped with elementary passion and emotions,- love and hate, joy and sorrow, fear and faith-  which are an essential part of human nature.

Style is a purely personal one. In a deeper sense, style is the unconscious expression of the writer's own personality.

It has two types:-                                                       

 1. Prose- It is an inclusive terms for all discourse, spoken or written which is not patterned into lines either of matric verse or of free verse.

 2. Poetry- It is a piece of literature that evokes a concentrated imagination, awareness or specific emotional responses through language chosen and arranged for its meaning, sound, and rhythm.

The prose is divided into -

Drama- The piece of work that is written to be enacted or performed in the theatre in which actors play their own role, do action, and utter written dialogue. The alternative name of drama is Play.

                                                           

Novel- The term novel is applied to a great variety of writing that have in common only the attribute of being an extended work of fiction written in prose. Its magnitudes permit a great variety of of characters, great complication of plot, ampler development of milieu etc.

Short story- A short story is a brief work of prose fiction. Like a novel- it organizes the action, thought and dialogue of its characters into the artful pattern of a plot directed toward a particular effect on an audience.

Latter- A latter is a written message conveyed from one person or group of persons to another through a medium.

Essay- Any short composition in prose that undertakes to discuss a matter, and express a point of view.

Satire- It can be described as the literary art of diminishing or derogating a subject by making it ridiculous, scorn, and indignation.

Poetry is divided into -

Balled- It is a poem in short stanzas narrating a popular story, and simple diction and the situation are elementary. Originally, it is a dance song. It deals with a variety of subjects such as- love, both happy and tragic, old time magic etc.

Lyrics- It is a short poem uttered by single speaker who express a state of mind or a process of perception, thought and feeling.

Epic- It is a long verse narration on a serious subject, told in a formal and elevated style, and centered on a heroic figure on whose action depends the fate of a tribe, a nation, and the human race. 

Odes- It denotes a long lyrical poems that is serious in subject, and treatment, elevated in style, and elaborate in its stanzaic structure.

Sonnet- A poem of a single stanza of fourteen lines, having iambic pentameter.

Elegy- It is a lyrical piece of poetry for the dead.

Drama- It is a story in the form of prose or poetry meant for the stage. The story is told through dialogue, supported by customs, gestures and music.

Satire- It is a kind of didactic poetry which points out the faults of individuals or communities. 

Periods of English literature:

There are following periods are in chronological order.

1. Old English period (Anglo-Saxon) 450-1066
2. Middle English period- 1066-1500
3. The Renaissance period (or Early Modern)- 1500-1600
    It is further divided into:-
         1558-1603 Elizabethan Age
         1603-1625 Jacobean Age
         1625-1649 Caroline Age
         1649-1660 Commonwealth period (or Puritan Interregnum)
4. The Neoclassical Period - 1660-1785
     It is further divided into:-
       1660-1700 The Restoration
       1700-1745 The Augustan Age
       1745-1785 The Age of Sensibility(or Age of Johnson)
5. The Romantic Period- 1785-1832
6. The Victorian Period - 1832-1901
     It is further divided into:-
          1848-1860 The Pre- Raphaelites
          1880-1901 Aestheticism and Decadence
7. The Modern Period - 1901-1945
     It is further divided into:-
             1901-1914 The Edwardian Period
             1914-1939 The Georgian Period
8. The Postwar Period - 1945-1970
9. The Postmodern Period 1970-till today.

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